完美主义及其认知——行为治疗研究

完美主义是一种深刻影响人格的心理特征,与心理病理学现象有极为密切的联系.完美主义已经引起了心理界的关注.从完美主义的定义出发,提出完美主义认知和行为特征,总结了完美主义的评估方法及完美主义与心理障碍的关系研究,最后对完美主义的认知一行为治疗的方法和步骤进行了阐述.     

完美主义与心理障碍的关系研究

完美主义是一种深刻影响人格的心理特征,与心理障碍有着极为密切的联系。完美主义是进食障碍、抑郁、强迫障碍、社交焦虑、人格障碍的风险和维持因素,这些心理障碍患者的完美主义得分显著高于健康控制组,在对这些心理障碍进行治疗时,应该对完美主义心理特征加以重视。完美主义的治疗对于改善与之相关的心理障碍的症状有着积极的意义。就完美主义与心理障碍的关系研究进行系统回顾,并对完美主义的认知-行为心理咨询的方法进行了阐述。     

完美主义心理研究的历史和现状

完美主义(perfecrionism)心理是《心理障碍诊断与统计手册》(DSM-Ⅲ)的重要的诊断标准之一,被认为参与多种心理障碍的形成与发展。但是长期以来,对于完美主义心理缺少精确的定义和量化研究。上世纪八十年代以来,在欧美的心理咨询和资质优异教育领域,这种心理愈来愈被看作是与个体的心理健康及创造力息息相关的人格特质,并且已普遍承认这种特质是多维度、多侧面的。本文追溯了完美主义心理研究的历史渊源。介绍了完美主义心理研究的现状和进展。     

完美主义研究综述

本文在对完美主义的概念、测评工具予以介绍的基础上,回顾了临床完美主义与心理病理学的相关研究,并针对完美主义的测评工具提出了需要进一步深入研究的问题。     

心理病理学视野中的完美主义自我展示

完美主义自我展示是完美主义者在人际过程中为向他人展示自己非现实的、固定化的完美形象而进行的印象整饰过程。本文在简要阐述完美主义特征与澄清完美主义自我展示概念基础上,重点梳理和剖析了完美主义自我展示对抑郁、焦虑、社交恐惧、饮食障碍及人格障碍等常见心理病理现象的影响,并分析了其影响机制,最后,就深化该领域的研究提出了总结和展望。     

父母教养方式与拖延:完美主义的中介作用

采用父母教养方式问卷、佛洛斯特多维完美主义量表和一般拖延量表对315位大学生进行调查,建立父母教养方式、完美主义和拖延的结构方程模型,考察完美主义在父母教养方式与拖延之间的中介作用。结果发现:(1)消极的父母教养方式负向预测适应性完美主义,正向预测非适应性完美主义;(2)适应性完美主义负向预测拖延,非适应性完美主义正向预测拖延;(3)父母教养方式通过完美主义的中介作用影响拖延行为,非适应性完美主义者易拖延,适应性完美主义者则不易拖延。     

心理理论对幼儿白谎行为的影响：认知移情的部分中介作用

采用失望礼物研究范式考察心理理论与幼儿白谎行为的关系,及认知移情和情绪移情在其中的中介作用。结果发现：（1）幼儿的白谎行为发生率、心理理论、认知移情和情绪移情能力随年龄的增长而提高;（2）控制年龄与言语能力后,幼儿的心理理论与认知移情呈显著正相关、与白谎行为也呈显著正相关,且认知移情与白谎行为呈显著正相关;（3）幼儿的认知移情在心理理论和白谎行为间起部分中介的作用。结果表明：幼儿的心理理论可直接影响其白谎行为,也可通过认知移情的中介作用间接影响其白谎行为。     

非适应性完美主义对大学生考试焦虑的影响：有调节的中介模型

为探究大学生非适应性完美主义与考试焦虑间的内在心理机制，采用中文版Frost多维完美主义量表、考试焦虑量表、自尊问卷和生活定向测验对897名大学生进行调查。结果如下：(1)大学生非适应性完美主义显著正向预测考试焦虑；(2)自尊在大学生非适应性完美主义与考试焦虑间起部分中介作用；(3)乐观在大学生非适应性完美主义与考试焦虑、非适应性完美主义与自尊间起调节作用。大学生乐观水平越高，非适应性完美主义对考试焦虑及自尊的预测作用越小。研究结果对改善大学生考试焦虑具有重要理论价值和实践意义。     

完美主义人格特质与抑郁易感性的关系研究

积极完美主义者追求卓越并达到杰出的成就,而消极完美主义者追求绝对的完美,不能接受任何不完美的事物,进而容易使个体产生抑郁.首先对完美主义人格特质的特点进行了阐述,其次对完美主义与高成就的关系进行了评论,讨论了抑郁的易感性因素,确定了完美主义和抑郁的关系,最后提出了完美主义者可以用来降低抑郁易感性的方法和策略.     

宽恕心理的行为测量及认知神经机制

宽恕是一个复杂的心理过程,被认为是对冒犯者的亲社会化转变的过程,包括认知、情绪、动机和行为上的改变。本文回顾了国内外宽恕心理的行为测量范式和认知神经机制研究相关的成果,发现宽恕心理的行为测量范式能够揭示宽恕相关的心理过程;认知神经机制的研究发现宽恕心理过程主要涉及负责社会认知、共情和认知控制等功能的脑区。未来的研究应关注宽恕心理行为测量范式的有效性和揭示内容的一致性、宽恕心理的认知和脑神经基础。     

Understanding perfectionism and depression in an adult clinical population: Is outcome expectancy relevant to psychological functioning?

Perfectionism is a personality trait defined by high standards of performance, which has been identified as a risk factor for major depressive disorder (MDD). The present study examined if outcome expectancy involved in perfectionism differs for individuals with depression compared to non-depressed controls, and how outcome expectancy relates to depression symptoms. This study included 49 depressed and 42 non-depressed participants. Perfectionism and depression severity were measured via self-report instruments. This study is the first to provide preliminary evidence that outcome expectancies involved in perfectionism may be related to psychological functioning in depression. Individuals with depression demonstrated higher negative and lower positive outcome expectancies associated with perfectionism compared to non-depressed participants. Perfectionism outcome expectancies are also related to depression severity and symptoms. Future research should prospectively investigate relationships of outcome expectancy involved in perfectionism in individuals at risk for depression.     

Perfectionism and depression symptom severity in major depressive disorder.

In recent years it has been recognized that perfectionism is a multidimensional construct and two Multidimensional Perfectionism Scales have been developed and investigated in relative isolation [Frost, R.O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 449-468; Hewitt, P.L., & Flett, G.L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470]. The present study sought to evaluate the association between various dimensions of perfectionism, higher-order personality dimensions, and self and observer rated depressive symptoms in a group of 145 patients with major depressive disorder. Only three of ten perfectionism dimensions (socially prescribed perfectionism, concern over mistakes and self-criticism) displayed medium to large correlations with depressive symptoms, especially self-report symptoms reflecting depressive cognitive distortions. The results are discussed in relation to the specificity of perfectionism dimensions to depression, adaptive versus maladaptive aspects of perfectionism, and in the context of previous research, much of which has relied on college student samples.     

Perfectionism,over commitment to work,and burnout in employees seeking workplace counselling

Perfectionism is linked to a range of psychological disorders. Burnout is an important construct in the working population and has been found to overlap with related constructs such as depression. There has been limited research conducted between perfectionism and burnout. This study aimed to examine the link between perfectionism and burnout and if procrastination and over commitment to work were mediators of the relationship. There were 69 participants recruited who were seeking counselling from a counselling firm, providing employee assistance services. The results indicated that procrastination was not a significant mediator of the relationship between concern over mistakes (CM) perfectionism and burnout. There was a significant mediating relationship found, where overcommitment to work mediated the relationship between CM perfectionism leading to burnout. The implications of the study in terms of interventions for employees suffering burnout, and directions for future research in regards to the relationship between perfectionism and burnout are considered.     

The role of dichotomous thinking and rigidity in perfectionism

Perfectionism is a complex psychological construct that has been defined in many different ways. Recent conceptualisations of perfectionism have involved dividing the construct into positive and negative components. Negative perfectionism is associated with high emotional distress whereas positive perfectionism is associated with positive affect and lower levels of distress. Although these distinctions have been made it remains unclear as to how distinct the two aspects of perfectionism are particularly in terms of their cognitive profiles. This study investigated two cognitive constructs that have been theoretically linked to perfectionism. Dichotomous thinking and rigidity were examined in three samples (40 clinical participants, 111 athletes, 101 students). As hypothesised, the clinical sample had the highest score on negative perfectionism, however, no differences were observed between groups on positive perfectionism. Dichotomous thinking emerged as the variable most predictive of negative perfectionism, and was less strongly related to positive perfectionism. These results highlight the importance of dichotomous thinking as a cognitive construct worthy of further research to understand negative perfectionism. Implications for the development of cognitive therapy interventions for negative perfectionism are discussed.     

Relationships between perfectionism,self-report impulsivity measures and delay discounting

Perfectionism and impulsivity are multidimensional constructs. While different perfectionism dimensions are exclusively measured through self-reports, different impulsivity dimensions can be measured through self-report or behaviour via preferences for different rewards. This study explored differential associations between perfectionism and impulsivity based on both dimension and measurement modality (self-report/behavioural). We then examined whether adaptive or maladaptive perfectionism would be differentially associated with impulsivity. Two-hundred and six students completed two perfectionism and three impulsivity measures (two self-report; one behavioural). Two self-report impulsivity measures were associated with specific perfectionism dimensions, whereas the behavioural measure was not associated with perfectionism. Maladaptive perfectionism was associated with decreasing impulsivity, whereas adaptive perfectionism was associated with increasing impulsivity. Perfectionism related to impulsivity differently depending on how each construct was measured.     

How does perfectionism affect academic achievement? Examining the mediating role of accurate self-assessment

Perfectionism, a multidimensional disposition encompassing both positive and negative attributes, has been widely examined in a number of different fields, one of which is academics. However, results of research on the precise connection between perfectionism and academic success remain largely inconclusive. The present study, therefore, attempted to identify this underlying mechanism by examining the mediating role of accurate self-assessment in the relationship between perfectionism and academic achievement of college students. The results revealed that while perfectionistic concerns and strivings did not directly affect academic achievement, their indirect effects were statistically significant. Perfectionistic concerns negatively predicted academic achievement through inaccurate self-assessment, whereas perfectionistic strivings positively predicted academic achievement through accurate self-assessment. These findings are expected to promote a practical and balanced understanding of academic perfectionism by explaining the relationship between the sub-dimensions of perfectionism and academic achievement.     

Dimensions of Perfectionism and Anxiety Sensitivity

The current study investigated the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with components of the anxiety sensitivity construct. A sample of 177 undergraduate students completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale, and the Expanded Anxiety Sensitivity Index developed by Taylor and Cox (1998). The results confirmed that automatic thoughts involving perfectionism and the interpersonal aspects of the perfectionism construct are associated with anxiety sensitivity. Examination of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index factors showed that perfectionism cognitions were associated primarily with anxiety sensitivity involving fears of cognitive dyscontrol, while socially prescribed perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation were associated primarily with fears of publicly observable anxiety reactions in a manner suggesting that the interpersonal perfectionism dimensions are linked closely with an anxious sensitivity to negative social evaluation and subsequent panic attacks. The theoretical and treatment implications of the link between perfectionism and anxiety sensitivity are discussed.     

A preliminary look at loneliness as a moderator of the link between perfectionism and depressive and anxious symptoms in college students: does being lonely make perfectionistic strivings more distressing?

An integrative model involving perfectionism [Hewitt, P. L., & Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470] and loneliness as predictors of depressive and anxious symptoms was proposed and tested in 383 college students. Beyond the expected additive influences of the two predictors in the prediction of symptoms, loneliness was also hypothesized to moderate the link between perfectionism and symptoms. Results indicated that other-oriented perfectionism predicted anxious symptoms, whereas socially prescribed perfectionism predicted both depressive and anxious symptoms. Loneliness was found to add incremental validity to these predictions. Moreover, the Perfectionism x Loneliness interaction was found to further augment the prediction of depressive and anxious symptoms. These findings are taken to offer support for a more contextual model of perfectionism. Some implications of the present findings are discussed.     

Self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism dimensions and their associations with disordered eating

This study examined the relationship between self-oriented and socially prescribed dimensions of perfectionism (using two measures of perfectionism) and disordered eating assessed across multiple time points in a sample of young women. Study participants (n=406) reported on their levels of perfectionism and on their subsequent patterns of dieting and bulimic symptoms. Self-oriented perfectionism was strongly linked to dietary restraint, whether using the theoretically derived perfectionism dimensions from the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) [Hewitt, P.L., & Flett, G.L. (1991a). Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: Conceptualization, assessment, and association with psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 456-470] or the dimensions derived from the Perfectionism subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) [Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15-34]. A less clear-cut pattern emerged when bulimic symptoms were investigated, with both self-oriented (MPS and EDI) and socially prescribed perfectionism (MPS) being associated with bulimic symptoms. After controlling for negative affect, only a self-oriented dimension of perfectionism predicted unique variance in bulimic symptoms. What constitutes maladaptive perfectionism, concerns about using EDI-Perfectionism dimensions interchangeably with MPS dimensions, and future directions are discussed.