完美主义及其认知-行为治疗研究

完美主义是一种深刻影响人格的心理特征,与心理病理学现象有极为密切的联系。完美主义已经引起了心理界的关注。从完美主义的定义出发,提出完美主义认知和行为特征,总结了完美主义的评估方法及完美主义与心理障碍的关系研究,最后对完美主义的认知-行为治疗的方法和步骤进行了阐述。     

完美主义及其认知——行为治疗研究

完美主义是一种深刻影响人格的心理特征,与心理病理学现象有极为密切的联系.完美主义已经引起了心理界的关注.从完美主义的定义出发,提出完美主义认知和行为特征,总结了完美主义的评估方法及完美主义与心理障碍的关系研究,最后对完美主义的认知一行为治疗的方法和步骤进行了阐述.     

完美主义与心理障碍的关系研究

完美主义是一种深刻影响人格的心理特征,与心理障碍有着极为密切的联系。完美主义是进食障碍、抑郁、强迫障碍、社交焦虑、人格障碍的风险和维持因素,这些心理障碍患者的完美主义得分显著高于健康控制组,在对这些心理障碍进行治疗时,应该对完美主义心理特征加以重视。完美主义的治疗对于改善与之相关的心理障碍的症状有着积极的意义。就完美主义与心理障碍的关系研究进行系统回顾,并对完美主义的认知-行为心理咨询的方法进行了阐述。     

心理障碍与完美主义关系的研究进展

国外对心理障碍与完美主义的关系研究集中在进食障碍、焦虑障碍、强迫障碍、社交恐惧和抑郁等领域。研究表明,完美主义是导致心理障碍的原因之一,但并非所有的完美主义或者完美主义的所有维度都会导致心理障碍。     

内隐完美主义效应及其与外显完美主义的关系

研究运用内隐联想测验对内隐完美主义进行了测验研究,同时用结构方程模型对内隐完美主义与外显完美主义的关系进行了探讨,结果表明:(1)内隐完美主义效应是存在的,个体无意识中有一种追求完美的倾向;(2)内隐完美主义测验的内部一致性比较高;(3)内隐完美主义和外显完美主义是相对独立的结构.     

非适应性完美主义对大学生考试焦虑的影响：有调节的中介模型

为探究大学生非适应性完美主义与考试焦虑间的内在心理机制，采用中文版Frost多维完美主义量表、考试焦虑量表、自尊问卷和生活定向测验对897名大学生进行调查。结果如下：(1)大学生非适应性完美主义显著正向预测考试焦虑；(2)自尊在大学生非适应性完美主义与考试焦虑间起部分中介作用；(3)乐观在大学生非适应性完美主义与考试焦虑、非适应性完美主义与自尊间起调节作用。大学生乐观水平越高，非适应性完美主义对考试焦虑及自尊的预测作用越小。研究结果对改善大学生考试焦虑具有重要理论价值和实践意义。     

大学生完美主义、自尊与学业拖延的关系

采用问卷法调查了311名大学生学业拖延与完美主义和自尊的关系,特别考察了自尊在完美主义与学业拖延关系间的中介作用。研究结果表明:(1) 学业拖延与消极完美主义显著正相关,与积极完美主义显著负相关,与自尊显著负相关;自尊与消极完美主义显著负相关,与积极完美主义显著正相关。(2) 消极完美主义显著正向预测学业拖延,积极完美主义和自尊显著负向预测学业拖延。(3) 自尊在积极、消极完美主义与学业拖延关系间起部分中介作用。     

心理病理学视野中的完美主义自我展示

完美主义自我展示是完美主义者在人际过程中为向他人展示自己非现实的、固定化的完美形象而进行的印象整饰过程。本文在简要阐述完美主义特征与澄清完美主义自我展示概念基础上,重点梳理和剖析了完美主义自我展示对抑郁、焦虑、社交恐惧、饮食障碍及人格障碍等常见心理病理现象的影响,并分析了其影响机制,最后,就深化该领域的研究提出了总结和展望。     

完美主义研究综述

本文在对完美主义的概念、测评工具予以介绍的基础上,回顾了临床完美主义与心理病理学的相关研究,并针对完美主义的测评工具提出了需要进一步深入研究的问题。     

中学生完美主义特点及其与亲社会倾向的关系

本研究使用修订后的Hewitt多维完美主义量表(HMPS)和亲社会倾向量表(PTM),对中学生群体进行了测查,并采用简单相关、典型相关和回归分析等方法,探讨中学生完美主义特点及其与亲社会倾向的关系。结果表明:(1)中学生在指向自我完美主义上得分最高,其次是社会期望完美主义,指向他人完美主义得分最低。(2)中学生的亲社会倾向由高到低依次为:利他的、情绪的、紧急的、依从的、匿名的和公开的。(3)指向自我完美主义与六类亲社会倾向都正相关,但指向他人完美主义、社会期望完美主义仅与公开的亲社会倾向正相关。从典型相关分析结果看,典型变量所代表的亲社会倾向主要是利他的、依从的、公开的亲社会倾向,而这些亲社会倾向主要由指向自我完美主义、指向他人完美主义来解释。(4)回归分析发现,除去年级、性别、学校类型的作用外,指向自我完美主义对公开的、匿名的、利他的、依从的、情绪的、紧急的等六类亲社会倾向的解释力分别为2.6%、2.8%、7.2%、7.4%、7.0%、5.0%。     

Perfectionism in Pediatric Anxiety and Depressive Disorders

Although perfectionism has been identified as a factor in many psychiatric disorders across the life span, it is relatively understudied in pediatric anxiety and depressive disorders. Furthermore, there exists little cohesion among previous research, restricting the conclusions that can be made across studies. In this review, research associating perfectionism with pediatric anxiety and depression is examined and a framework is presented synthesizing research to date. We focus on detailing the current understanding of how perfectionism develops and interacts with other developmental features characteristic of anxiety and depression in children and potential pathways that result in anxiety and depressive disorders. This includes: how perfectionism is measured in children, comparisons with relevant adult literature, the development of perfectionism in children and adolescents, mediators and moderators of the link between perfectionism and anxiety and depression, and the role of perfectionism in treatment and prevention of these disorders. We also present research detailing perfectionism across cultures. Findings from these studies are beginning to implicate perfectionism as an underlying process that may contribute broadly to the development of anxiety and depression in a pediatric population. Throughout the review, difficulties, limitations, and gaps in the current understanding are presented while offering suggestions for future research.     

Perfectionism and the pursuit of personal goals: A self-determination theory analysis

Previous studies have shown that self-critical and personal standards forms of perfectionism are associated with progress on personal goals in opposite ways. The present study used a 5-wave prospective longitudinal design to examine what motivational factors account for the finding that self-critical perfectionism has been reliably associated with poor goal progress whereas personal standard perfectionism has been associated with good progress. Specifically, we adopted a self-determination theory perspective to examine the role of autonomy in mediating the effects of perfectionism. Our results replicated previous findings linking the two forms of perfectionism with opposite patterns of goal progress. Importantly, the results suggested that the negative goal effects of self-critical perfectionism are mediated by lower levels of autonomous goal motivation. The results also demonstrated links from personal standards perfectionism to greater autonomous goal motivation. Interestingly, the effects of self-critical perfectionism on goal progress appeared to be dynamic over time and implicated affective mechanisms. The results of the investigation point to the value of adopting a self-determination theory perspective to understand perfectionism.     

Perfectionism levels in African-American and Caucasian adolescents

Previous studies have indicated that perfectionism levels are higher among African-American females than among Caucasians. However, this conclusion has been reached largely from studies of adult populations. The present study of adolescents assesses whether this difference is found in all aspects of perfectionism, and whether it applies equally to males and females. The Multi-dimensional Perfectionism Scale was completed by 387 high school students (15–19 years). African-American males and females had greater levels of self-oriented and other-oriented perfectionism than their Caucasian peers, but there was no difference in the perception of external pressures to perform well. Possible reasons for this pattern are discussed, with an emphasis on the possibility that African-American adolescents perceive a need to overcorrect their performance as a result of their perceived status in their broader society.     

Clarifying the construct of perfectionism

The construct of perfectionism is related to many important outcome variables. However, the term perfectionism has been defined in many different ways, and items comprising the different existing scales appear to be very different in content. The overarching aim of the present set of studies was to help clarify the specific unidimensional personality constructs that contribute to perfectionistic behavior. First, trained raters reliably sorted items from existing measures of perfectionism into nine dimensions. An exploratory factor analysis, followed by a confirmatory factor analysis on an independent sample, resulted in a 9-scale, 61-item measure, called the Measure of Constructs Underlying Perfectionism. The nine scales were internally consistent and stable across time, and they were differentially associated with relevant measures of personality in theoretically meaningful ways.     

Clinical perfectionism and eating psychopathology in athletes: The role of gender

Clinical perfectionism is considered to be a core psychopathological mechanism involved in the aetiology and maintenance of eating disorders. Recent clinical evidence suggests pathological self-criticism, which underlines clinical perfectionism, exerts a greater influence on eating disordered symptoms than high standards perfectionism. However, little attention has been paid to this line of research within the athletic population. The current study examined the association between various advocated measures of clinical perfectionism and eating psychopathology among athletes, and the moderating effect of gender in such association. A total of 192 competitive level athletes completed self-report measures assessing perfectionism and eating psychopathology. Results revealed self-critical perfectionism as the only independent predictor of athletes’ eating psychopathology. Such relationship was found to be moderated by gender, with increases in self-critical perfectionism resulting in increases in eating psychopathology for female athletes only. The present findings further reinforce self-critical perfectionism as a robust contributor of eating psychopathology.     

Perfectionism, anger, and anger rumination

Anger and anger rumination are considered to be detrimental to both physical and psychological well being. Furthermore, perfectionism, as a personality construct, seems to be related to various types of maladjustment. Whereas perfectionism has been characterized as being positive when an individual derives pleasure from striving for excellence yet recognizes and accepts individual limitations, it is deemed negative when the individual has unrealistic expectations and is never satisfied with his or her performance. The present study examined whether positive and negative perfectionism was associated with anger and anger rumination. The Farsi version of the Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scale and the Farsi version of the Anger Rumination Scale, as well as Spielberger's State-Trait Anger Scale were completed by 384 Iranian students. Results showed that anger and anger rumination were, as expected, associated negatively with positive perfectionism and associated positively with negative perfectionism. Positive perfectionism enables individuals to strive for success in a flexible manner and, thus, to experience satisfaction and pleasure rather than dissatisfaction, frustration, and anger. Conversely, negative perfectionism makes individuals vulnerable to emotional distress such as predisposition to experience anger and anger rumination through setting high standards for performance, overgeneralization of perceived failures, negative self-evaluation, self-blame, and measuring self-worth in terms of unachievable goals of accomplishment and productivity. Hence, perfectionism may be regarded as having both adaptive and maladaptive aspects with regard to health.     

完美主义结构研究述评

早期研究者如Adler、Homey和Ellis认为完美主义是一种单维的人格结构。后来的研究者如Hewitt、Frost等多持多维观点,认为完美主义是由不同因素组成的复杂结构。目前越来越多学者认同完美主义的二维观,认为完美主义有积极和消极之分。今后研究应考虑完美主义的文化因素,同时应从心理咨询、心理治疗和心理健康教育效果的角度来佐证某种结构观的合理性。     

Physical appearance perfectionism explains variance in eating disorder symptoms above general perfectionism

Physical appearance perfectionism is a domain-specific form of perfectionism comprising two components: hope for perfection and worry about imperfection (Yang & Stoeber, 2012). Previous studies found that physical appearance perfectionism is related to eating disorder symptoms, particularly the worry about imperfection component, but did not address the question of whether physical appearance perfectionism explains variance in eating disorder symptoms above general perfectionism. The present study investigated the question examining 559 female university students. Physical appearance perfectionism explained an additional 9–17% of variance in eating disorder symptoms above the 11–20% variance explained by general perfectionism. The findings suggest that physical appearance perfectionism plays an important role in disordered eating beyond general perfectionism.     

Maladaptive perfectionism as an intervening variable between psychological control and adolescent depressive symptoms: a three-wave longitudinal study.

Maladaptive perfectionism has been postulated as an intervening variable between psychologically controlling parenting and adolescent internalizing problems. Although this hypothesis has been confirmed in a number of cross-sectional studies, it has not yet been examined from a longitudinal perspective. Findings from this 3-wave longitudinal study show that parental psychological control (as indexed by parent and adolescent reports) at age 15 years predicted increased levels of maladaptive perfectionism 1 year later. Maladaptive perfectionism, in turn, predicted increased levels of adolescent depressive symptoms again 1 year later and acted as a significant intervening variable between parental psychological control at Time 1 and depressive symptoms at Time 3. Multigroup analyses show that the model tested was consistent across gender for paternal psychological control but not for maternal psychological control. Suggestions for future research are outlined.     

The Roles of Anxious Rearing,Negative Affect,and Effortful Control in a Model of Risk for Child Perfectionism

Perfectionism has been linked with psychopathology and other difficulties in children. As such, research has begun to focus on those factors that predict perfectionism in children. Separate lines of research have identified temperament and parenting as two specific areas that are associated with perfectionism in children. Yet, few studies have investigated these two areas within a single study and none have examined whether effortful control reduces perfectionism. The current study sought to examine the roles of negative affect, effortful control, and parental anxious rearing on child perfectionism using a single path model. Participants were 59 parent-child dyads recruited from the community. Children were between the ages of 7.5 and 13 years (55% female; 75% Caucasian; 16.7% African American). The model fit the data well. Results indicated that anxious rearing predicted increased perfectionism, whereas effortful control predicted decreased perfectionism. Additionally, there was a significant indirect effect of anxious rearing on the association between negative affect and perfectionism. However, contrary to expectations, negative affect did not significantly predict increased perfectionism, and effortful control did not moderate these effects. Results suggest that negative affect may be indirectly related to child perfectionism, through anxious rearing, and that effortful control may help protect children from developing high levels of perfectionism. Additionally, the results are consistent with theoretical models of perfectionism development and suggest multiple domains contribute to perfectionism.