专题一:跨文化理解与概念图式

戴维森对于标准含义的相对主义进行了两种批判。① 一是反对图式与内容的二元论。在这一点上我同意戴维‘森的批判 ;另一类就是反对概念图式这一观念的贯通性。这一点我是不赞成的。我认为 ,概念图式这一观念本身是贯通的 ,处在一种图式当中的人 ,可以理解另一图式当中的人。然而 ,相对主义大可不必设定出图式与内容的二元论。在标准含义上 ,相对主义认为 ,与事实性或正确性密切相关的认知判断和价值判断 ,对于它们出现于其中的概念图式来说是相对的。这些图式可能包括以下内容 :文化、社会、文明、传统、所处的历史阶段、观点、视角、立场…     

奥斯曼传略

第三任哈里发奥斯曼的名字,对中国穆斯林来说是比较熟悉的,主要是因为关于伊斯兰教开始传入中国的时间问题,中国穆斯林一般地是以《旧唐书·西域传》所记载的“永徽二年”(公元651年)为依据的。那便是伊斯兰教历30年——奥斯曼哈里发在位的第八年。其次,《古兰经》标准本的定本、开始复制和流通是奥斯曼哈里发任期内的事,这也是世界穆斯林所知悉的。     

Н.П.奥格辽夫是革命民主主义者和战斗的唯物主义者

苏联人民确实以自己过去的伟大革命、多世纪的丰富的文化和哲学领域中的牢固的唯物主义传统为自豪。尼古拉·普拉诺维奇·奥格辽夫(1813-1877年)——十九世纪俄罗斯革命民主主义者、哲学唯物主义者、政论家、诗人,——和别林斯基和赫尔岑、车尔尼雪夫斯基和杜勃罗留波夫同列为革命俄罗斯的杰出代表。 (?).奥格辽夫是属于贵族革命家一代的人物。从青年时起,他就站在反对专制制度和农奴制度、为人民的自由而斗争的道路上。奥格辽夫在俄国反农奴制运动发展的影响下,在自己的思想发展过程中,从贵族的革命者成为农民革命民主主义者、农奴制农民利益的捍卫者。奥格辽夫和赫尔岑一样,是逃避检查的俄罗斯民主主义刊物(如“北极     

The role of visual information in control of a constrained locomotor task

The nature of visually guided locomotion was examined in an experiment where subjects had to walk to targets under various conditions. Target distance was manipulated so that subjects had to (a) lengthen their paces in order to hit the target; (b) shorten their paces; (c) make no adjustments to their standard pace length at all. They did this under four visual conditions: (a) normal vision; (b) with vision restricted to a "snapshot" each time the foot that was to be placed on the target was on the ground; (c) with a snapshot each time the foot to be placed was in the swing phase; and (d) no vision after departure fro the target. The results show that the subjects succeed in reaching the target in most cases. However, the smoothness and fluidity of their movements vary significantly between conditions. Under normal vision or where visual snapshots are delivered when the pointing foot is on the ground, locomotion is smoothly regulated as the subjects approach the target. where snapshots are delivered when the pointing foot is in the swing phase, regulation becomes clumsy and ill coordinated. Where no vision is available at all during the approach, adjustments are made, but these are least coordinated of all. The results show that well-coordinated visual regulation does not require continuous visual guidance but depends on intermittent information being available at the appropriate times in the action sequence. Such timing is often more important than the total amount of information that is available for guidance.     

Choice between repleting/depleting patches: A concurrent-schedule procedure

Six pigeons responded on two concurrently available keys that defined patches with the following characteristics. Reinforcer stores repleted on a patch as a linear function of time when the bird had last responded to the other patch, or else did not replete. Repletion schedules thus timed only when the bird was absent from the patch. Reinforcer stores on a patch could be depleted and reinforcers obtained, again as a linear function of time, when the bird responded on a key. Depletion schedules thus timed only when the birds were present at a patch. Experiment 1 investigated changing relative depletion rates when repletion rates were constant and equal (Part 1) and changing relative repletion rates when the depletion rates were constant and equal (Part 2). Response- and time-allocation ratios conformed to a generalized matching relation with obtained reinforcer ratios, and there appeared to be no control by the size of the reinforcer stores. In Experiment 2, absolute depletion rates were varied with a pair of unequal repletion rates (Part 3), and absolute repletion rates were varied with a pair of unequal depletion rates (Part 4). Dwell times in the patches were not affected by either variation. Melioration theory predicted the results of Experiment 1 quite closely but erroneously predicted changing dwell times in Experiment 2. Molar maximization theory did not accurately predict the results of either experiment.     

Fixed-ratio pausing: Joint effects of past reinforcer magnitude and stimuli correlated with upcoming magnitude

Pigeons responded on fixed-ratio schedules ending in small or large reinforcers (grain presentations of different duration) interspersed within each session. In mixed-schedule conditions, the response key was lit with a single color throughout the session, and pausing was directly related to the past reinforcer (longer pauses after large reinforcers than after small ones). In multiple-schedule conditions, different colors accompanied the ratios ending in small and large reinforcers, and pausing was affected by the upcoming reinforcer as well as the past one. Pauses were shorter before large reinforcers than before small ones, but they continued to be longer after large reinforcers than after small ones. The influence of the past reinforcer was modulated by the magnitude of the upcoming reinforcer; in the presence of the stimulus before the small reinforcer, the effect of the past reinforcer was enhanced relative to its effect in the stimulus before the large reinforcer. These results show that pausing between ratios is jointly determined by two competing factors: past conditions of reinforcement and stimuli correlated with upcoming conditions.     

Discriminability between alternatives in a switching-key concurrent schedule

Six pigeons were trained to discriminate between two intensities of white light in a symbolic matching-to-sample procedure. These stimuli were then used to signal which schedule was available on the main key in a switching-key concurrent schedule. The concurrent schedules led to a symbolic matching-to-sample phase in which the subject identified the concurrent schedule to which it last responded before a reinforcer could be obtained. The concurrent schedules were varied across conditions. Discriminability, measured during the symbolic matching-to-sample performance, was high throughout and did not differ across the two procedures. Performance in the concurrent schedules was like that typically obtained using these schedules. Delays were then arranged between completion of the concurrent schedules and presentations of the symbolic matching-to-sample phase. A series of conditions with an intervening delay of 10 s showed that both concurrent-schedule performance and symbolic matching-to-sample performance were affected by the delay in a similar way; that is, choice responding was closer to indifference.     

The relationship between attitude,assertiveness and condom use

The Australian study investigated condom-specific assertiveness and condom use as a means of prevention infection from sexually transmitted diseases. 211 men participated including 83 homosexual men (aged 19-62 years) and 128 heterosexual men (aged 17-49) who completed a questionnaire that comprised demographic details such as age, monogamy, and sexual activity as well as attitudinal and assertiveness measures. General assertiveness was measured by the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (RAS) which had been widely used across a wide range of social situations. Assertiveness relating specifically to situations involving condoms was measured by the Condom Assertiveness Scale (CAS). Intention to use condoms was positively related to favorable attitudes, which were related to condom-specific assertiveness for both groups. For the heterosexual men only, general social assertiveness was negatively related to attitudes toward condoms. For both groups, the condom-specific measure of assertiveness was positively correlated with attitudes toward condoms. Condom-specific assertiveness was positively related to general social assertiveness as measured by the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule for the homosexual, but not for the heterosexual men. The negative relationship between general assertiveness and attitude to condoms among the heterosexual men implies that the risk reducing behavior of condom use did not seem to accord with the perceptions of masculinity and social assertiveness among heterosexual men. Thus, female partners of such heterosexual men exhibiting negative attitudes toward condom use combined with assertiveness would have to overcome resistance to insist on the use of condoms. Recently some advertising campaigns have been directed at women. The promotion of condom use among heterosexual men has to deal with the perceptions of condom use as unmasculine behavior.     

心身问题与心灵哲学

第9届维特根斯坦国际专题讨论会的主题是心灵哲学(philosophy of mind,或译心智哲学)和心理学哲学。详细地讨论过的问题包括:心身问题、心灵哲学的传统问题和心理学哲学。 1.心身问题什么是心身问题?“心灵”(mind)一词有多种非常不同的用法,这一事实导致了现代讨论中的某种混乱。对这个词,我们至少可以区分出五种不同的用法,因此心身问题至少有五种意义。 (1)我们可以象笛卡儿使用“mens”一词那样使用“心灵”一词,让它指称具有心理属性的东西,亦即指称那种能思想,能感知,能相信和能欲求的东西。在这种情况下,我们通常是用“心灵”这个词意指“人”这个词所意指的东西,因而该词表示的就是你和我这样一些实