不同负载条件对序列位置内隐学习的影响

序列反应时任务是继人工语法学习和复杂系统控制任务之后又一研究内隐学习的重要程式 ,该研究采用这种程式 ,比较了不同负载条件对序列位置内隐学习的影响。被试为华南师范大学本科生 6 0名。 3种负载条件分别为无负载、数字串记忆负载和反向反应负载。结果发现 ,数字记忆负载组被试与无负载组被试间内隐学习量差异显著 ,但对于不会破坏学习序列组织的反向负载组被试 ,其内隐学习量与无负载组差异不显著 ,却与数字记忆负载组间差异显著。这一结果说明序列反应时任务程式中的内隐学习不受加工容量的影响     

序列学习是否是内隐学习？

序列学习是继人工语法之后内隐学习的另一研究范式。以往观点认为,在练习后,被试对规则刺激和随机刺激在反应时上出现差异,就表明被试是内隐学习,这种差异量就是内隐学习量。但现在很多学者对序列学习是否内隐这一问题提出了疑问;运用新方法（过程分离法,简称PDP）的研究发现,序列学习是否内隐同反应-刺激间隔（RSI）有关,当RSI = 0时,序列学习才是内隐的;根据RSI提出了神经网络模型。     

序列长度和统计结构对序列位置内隐学习的影响

除人工语法之外,序列反应时任务也是内隐学习研究最常用的程式之一。在使用序列反应时任务进行内隐学习研究时,有研究者发现,类似于外显学习,序列位置内隐学习中序列规则的长度越长,学习成绩越差;而Stlader则在研究中发现,序列位置内隐学习中所学序列的统计结构会极大地影响被试内隐学习成绩,统计结构越高学习效果越好。     

内隐联结测验下单纯呈现效应与积极情感的产生

该研究以汉语双字词为刺激材料,以大学生为被试,首先检验了标准的GNAT内隐联结测验范式的有效性,实验一发现,积极名词与正性形容词联结的反应时显著快于与负性形容词联结的反应时.实验二发现,用在标准的单纯重复呈现范式中重复呈现过的中性名词,替换标准GNAT内隐联结测验范式中的积极名词,再次进行标准的GNAT内隐联结测验,观察到了重复呈现的中性名词与正性形容词联结的反应时显著快于与负性形容词联结的反应时,表明被试将重复呈现过的中性刺激与积极刺激联系比与消极刺激的联系更紧密.实验三发现,同样是这些中性名词,当没有被重复呈现时,在GNAT内隐联结测验中与积极形容词和消极形容词的联结的反应时之问差异不显著.研究表明,刺激的重复呈现会导致偏好的产生,使其能够起到积极刺激的作用.该研究认为,刺激的重复呈现,可能是积极情感产生的一个来源.     

作为情境变量的移情对暴力态度的影响

本研究将移情作为影响个体暴力态度的情境变量,通过对移情的启动来考察状态移情对暴力态度的影响。实验1在启动被试的移情感后,采用暴力IAT的方法考察被试内隐暴力态度的变化;实验2则在移情启动之后,用FMMU变态人格危险性评估问卷中的冲动倾向（VIO）考察被试的外显暴力的变化。实验结果显示,在启动被试的移情感后,我们没有发现被试的内隐和外显暴力态度发生显著变化,但经移情和性别的交互作用检验后发现,移情的启动减弱了男性被试的外显暴力态度,而对女性被试没有影响。研究结果表明,移情与暴力态度之间不存在内隐联结关系。根据以往的研究结果,移情对暴力态度的影响一是取决于意识层面的认知加工过程,二是与个体的特质性移情水平的高低有关。     

不同运动经历人群的内隐序列学习能力

考察不同运动经历人群的内隐序列学习能力。被试为上海体育学院小球运动员和非运动员;实验结合PDP,采用序列学习任务,并测试操作智商与记忆广度。结果发现,运动员在15个组段上的平均反应时、内隐学习量、自动提取贡献率上显著大于非运动员;不同水平运动员在内隐学习量上差异显著。研究结论:运动员的内隐序列学习能力显著好于非运动员,与运动水平有关,与智商无显著相关;这种内隐序列学习能力可能是某种运动能力的表现形式。     

内隐序列学习的表征机制及年龄效应研究

该研究从年龄效应这一独特视角探讨了内隐序列学习的表征机制。结果表明:(1)内隐序列学习存在具体联结和抽象层级编码双重表征机制,且在该研究中以抽象编码为主;(2)老、青、幼三组被试的内隐序列学习无显著差异,间接支持了具体联结机制不起主要作用的结论。该研究的推论是:(1)内隐序列学习的表征是一个遵循“最优级编码”的动态过程;(2)该过程不涉及注意机制和短时记忆。     

不同次级任务对序列学习的影响及年级差异

以大学生为被试,在单任务、"数声"和"数形"次级任务三种序列学习条件下考察反应时变化进程及内隐学习量的差异性。结果发现,次级任务影响被试内隐序列学习进程,且"数形"任务较"数声"任务对被试产生了更大的干扰作用;但与单任务相比,双任务下的内隐学习量未发生显著消退。考察大学、高中、初中、小学生在以上问题的年级差异中发现,除"数形组"小学生内隐学习消退以外,其他年级组在三任务条件下均习得内隐规则。内隐学习量的任务效应与年级效应显著。     

序列反应时任务中内隐和外显学习表征方式的实验研究

采用改进的序列反应时任务,探讨内隐和外显学习的知识表征方式,发现内隐组和外显组被试都习得了一定的序列规则.内隐组对标准字母的反应显著快于知觉偏差,而后者则又显著快于对动觉偏差字母的反应;外显组对标准字母的反应显著快于知觉偏差和动觉偏差,而后两者之间则没有区别.以上结果表明外显和内隐学习中知觉表征和动觉表征都起作用,不过在内隐学习中动觉表征起的作用更大.     

序列学习中的内隐学习效应

该研究采用较为复杂的包含图形出现的位置规则和顺序规则的实验材料,通过对比被试直接测验和间接测验、内隐学习和外显学习成绩的异同,考察了序列学习中的内隐学习效应,并探讨了规则特点对内隐学习效应的影响。结果表明,在图形位置的序列学习中存在内隐学习效应,内隐学习效应的大小受规则特点的影响。     

Position-item associations play a role in the acquisition of order knowledge in an implicit serial reaction time task

Knowledge of sequential regularities plays a key role in forms of explicit and implicit memory, such as working memory and motor skills. Despite important advances in the study of sequence knowledge in the past century, the theoretical development of implicit and explicit memory has occurred separately. Unlike the literature on implicit sequence learning, the explicit learning literature differentiates between 2 forms of representation of serial structure, chaining (C is the item following B in the sequence A-B-C-D) and ordinal position knowledge (C is the 3rd item). In 3 experiments, we demonstrate that these 2 forms of sequence knowledge can be acquired in implicit sequence learning. In Experiment 1, 2 trained sequences were recombined at transfer such that the strength of (a) associations between serial positions and sequence elements as well as (b) associations between successive sequence elements could be estimated. In Experiment 2, we compared sequence elements placed at the trained versus untrained serial position. Experiment 3 reduced cues that can be used to determine the start of a sequence within the stream of trials. Our results suggest that the discussion held in explicit memory research about different forms of representation of sequences knowledge also is relevant for implicit sequence learning.     

Implicit learning of what comes when and where within a sequence: The time-course of acquiring serial position-item and item-item associations to represent serial order

Much research has been conducted aimed at the representations and mechanisms that enable learning of sequential structures. A central debate concerns the question whether item-item associations (i.e., in the sequence A-B-C-D, B comes after A) or associations of item and serial list position (i.e., B is the second item in the list) are used to represent serial order. Previously, we showed that in a variant of the implicit serial reaction time task, the sequence representation contains associations between serial position and item information (Schuck, Gaschler, Keisler, & Frensch, 2011). Here, we applied models and research methods from working memory research to implicit serial learning to replicate and extend our findings. The experiment involved three sessions of sequence learning. Results support the view that participants acquire knowledge about order structure (item-item associations) and about ordinal structure (serial position-item associations). Analyses suggest that only the simultaneous use of the two types of knowledge acquisition can explain learning-related performance increases. Additionally, our results indicate that serial list position information plays a role very early in learning and that inter-item associations increasingly control behavior in later stages.     

Impaired skill learning in patients with severe closed-head injury as demonstrated by the serial reaction time (SRT) task

A group of 20 patients who sustained closed-head injury (CHI) and a matched control group of 20 individuals were tested on the serial reaction time (SRT) task. Three different sequence-learning measures were generated from the task: two implicit and one explicit. The two implicit sequence-learning measures include: (1) the learning rate on the first five blocks of the repeated sequence, assumed to reflect primarily general reaction time learning, and (2) the difference between the fifth block of the repeated sequence and the sixth block, a random sequence that reflects implicit sequence-specific learning. In addition, an explicit measure of sequence learning was generated. The results indicate that the CHI group was impaired on the explicit measure of sequence learning. The groups did not differ on general reaction time learning, one of the implicit measures of sequence learning. However, the control group was superior to the CHI group in learning the specific sequence repeated in the SRT task. This pattern of results is unique to the CHI group, corresponding with neither that of amnesic patients nor with that of patients with dysfunction of the basal ganglia (i.e., Parkinson's diseases).     

The role of working memory capacity in implicit and explicit sequence learning of children: Differentiating movement speed and accuracy

This study investigated the role of working memory capacity on implicit and explicit motor sequence learning in young children. To this end, a task was utilized that required a gross motor response (flexing the elbow) and that could differentiate between movement speed (i.e., reaction time and movement time) and movement accuracy. Children aged 7–9 years practiced a serial reaction time task that involved the production of a fixed sequence of elbow flexions of prescribed magnitude across two consecutive days. Children in the explicit group were informed about the presence of the sequence and were shown this sequence, while children in the implicit group were not made aware of the sequence. Additionally, children's verbal and visuospatial working memory capacity was assessed. Results of day 1 regarding movement speed revealed no evidence of sequence learning for either group, but movement accuracy results suggested that sequence learning occurred for the implicit group. For both groups, only improvements in movement accuracy were consolidated on day 2, indicating both general and sequence specific learning. Working memory capacity did not correlate with learning in either of the groups. Children in the explicit group accumulated more sequence knowledge compared to children in the implicit group, but this knowledge did not translate to more or better sequence learning. The minimal differences found between the implicit and explicit condition and the absence of a role for working memory capacity add to the increasing evidence that the observed differences between implicit and explicit sequence learning in adults may be less distinct in children.     

Implicit motor sequence learning is represented in response locations

Previous work (Willingham, 1999) has indicated that implicit motor sequence learning is not primarily perceptual; that is, what is learned is not a sequence of stimuli. Still other work has indicated that implicit motor sequence learning is not specific to particular muscle groups or effectors. In the present work, we tested whether implicit motor sequence learning would be represented as a sequence of response locations. In Experiment 1, learning showed very poor transfer when the response locations were changed, even though the stimulus positions were unchanged. In Experiment 2, participants switched their hand positions at transfer, so that one group of participants pushed the same sequence of keys but used a different sequence of finger movements to do so, whereas another group pushed a different sequence of keys but used the same sequence of finger movements used at training. Knowledge of the sequence was shown at transfer only if the sequence of response locations was maintained, not the sequence of finger movements.     

Sequence learning by action,observation and action observation

The serial reaction time (SRT) task was used to compare learning of a complex sequence by action (participants responded to sequential stimuli), by observation (participants watched but did not respond to sequential stimuli), and by action‐observation (participants watched an expert model responding to sequential stimuli). Each of these groups was compared with an untrained control group. Experiment 1 indicated that both observation and action‐observation were sufficient to support learning of a 12‐item second‐order conditional (SOC) sequence. Experiment 2 confirmed these findings, and showed that, as indexed by reaction time (RT), the extent of learning by observation and by action‐observation was comparable to that of action‐based learning. Using a recognition test, Experiment 2 and 3 also provided evidence that, whereas learning by stimulus observation was explicit, learning by action‐observation was implicit. These findings are consistent with a connection between motor systems and implicit learning, but do not support the hypothesis that overt action is necessary for implicit learning.     

Effects of sequence length and structure on implicit serial learning

Some data suggest that, as in explicit serial learning, longer sequences are more difficult to learn implicitly. These findings have been used to support the inference that implicit learning is capacity-limited. However, investigations of the effect of sequence length on implicit learning have confounded sequence structure with sequence length. These factors were manipulated independently in 3 experiments using a serial reaction time task. The results showed that sequence structure, not sequence length, largely determines the extent of sequence learning.     

内隐序列学习与中央执行功能的关系

内隐序列学习与一般认知的关系一直处于争议之中。近年来,越来越多的研究显示内隐序列学习与工作记忆（尤其是中央执行功能）存在显著关联。基于此,本研究通过两个实验来探测两者的相关及机制。实验1从行为与脑电两个角度探讨经典位置序列学习与中央执行功能的相关,发现经典位置序列学习的内隐习得量与中央执行功能的抑制、刷新功能的强度呈负相关,与转换功能没有显著相关,脑电结果也支持了这一结论。实验2在内隐序列学习中加入认知冲突来增加中央执行功能的负荷。结果发现在高抑制功能负荷任务条件下,内隐习得量与抑制功能强度的相关性发生了反转,进一步证明内隐序列学习与中央执行功能的抑制子成分在脑功能上的关系：不同条件下呈现竞争、协作等不同状态。     

序列统计结构对内隐序列学习发展的影响

采用序列学习研究范式,考察小三到大三学生内隐序列学习的发展规律及制约因素。结果表明:(1)各年龄组被试均能在序列学习中获得序列规则;(2)不同年龄组被试序列反应时存在显著差异,说明内隐序列学习从小三到大三之间一直存在发展变化;(3)被试在高统计结构下的反应时要低于低统计结构下的,且这种差异不存在发展变化,说明高统计结构下的内隐学习成绩要好于低统计结构下的;(4)外显被试的量随年龄增长而增加,说明对序列学习的有意识加工能力随年龄增长而提高。