内隐与外显倾向性道德敏感的关系及其预测源分析

以228名大学生为被试, 采用内隐联想测验(IAT)、倾向性道德敏感问卷(MDSQ)以及其它有关量表考察其内隐与外显倾向性道德敏感的关系及其预测变量。结果表明:男生比女生表现出在倾向性道德敏感上更高的内隐效应, 而女生则在外显倾向性道德敏感的移情内疚、移情烦扰等因子上得分高于男生, 在惩罚倾向因子上低于男生;大学生被试的外显、内隐倾向性道德敏感没有显著相关;自我监控、道德态度强度均能在不同程度上预测内隐与外显倾向性道德敏感的关系, 自我监控的预测作用相对较高。     

媒体暴力对大学生攻击性的长时效应和短时效应

本研究采取前后测实验设计,以内隐联想测验和Buss的攻击性问卷为研究工具,探讨了媒体暴力对大学生攻击性的长时效应和短时效应。结果发现:(1)个体实验前接触媒体暴力的程度越强烈,内隐攻击性越强,外显攻击性也越强;(2)接触暴力视频游戏10分钟就会增强个体的内隐攻击性,接触非暴力视频游戏10分钟对个体的内隐攻击性没有影响;接触暴力和非暴力视频游戏10分钟对个体的外显攻击性没有影响;(3)外显攻击性基线水平和游戏类型的交互作用不显著;内隐攻击性基线水平和游戏类型交互作用显著。内隐攻击性基线水平较高的个体,游戏类型对其内隐攻击性的影响差异不显著;内隐攻击性基线水平较低的个体,暴力视频游戏增加了他们的内隐攻击性,非暴力视频游戏对他们的内隐攻击性没有影响。     

移情与权力感启动对道德思维方式的影响

研究考察了被试的移情特质以及权力感启动后,对个体道德思维方式的影响。通过对250名被试进行移情能力测试和高低权力感启动后,让他们在道德两难情境中做出选择。结果表明:在低移情被试组,无论是启动高权力感还是启动低权力感,被试都呈现出以规则导向为主的道德判断;对高移情被试,启动高、低权力感后,两者在道德思维方式上的差异不显著。研究揭示了权力感是调节移情和道德思维方式的一个重要变量,这为我们合理看待社会道德冲突,解决社会矛盾提供了新的视角。     

外显与内隐选择的多效性原则

个体的选择可能是外显目标和内隐目标共同作用的结果,同时满足意识到的和未意识到的需要,这就是目标选择的多效性。通过两个行为学实验来验证内隐选择的多效性原则。实验一,被试随机分为积极和消极启动两个组,不同的启动后,要求判断两张不同颜色纸张的质量高低。结果发现在积极认同组,大多数的被试选择红色织物,在消极认同组（惭愧组）,少数的被试选择红色织物。实验二,被试同样被分为两组,其中一组施加积极启动,另一组为控制组,之后,所有被试被邀请参加一项研究涉及雇佣人员的决策。结果发现当被试没有分配任何目标时,被试选择四位应征者并无显著之差异;当被试分配了外显或内隐的目标时,大多数的被试选择了具有相应特征的应征者;当被试的外显目标和隐性目标都存在,被试的选择表现出多效性。实验结果表明,在追求明确的外显目标时,个人可能与此同时试图满足他们的已经激活的内隐背景目标,选择者可能并没有意识到这种影响。在二选一或者多选一选择背景下,对一个已知选项的选择,受到多效性影响,其多效性是基于个人选择的价值最大化,并同时满足几个目标的原则。     

情绪、态度与行为的关系：基于APE模型

以Gawronski & Bodenhausen（2006）提出的联结性-推理性评价模型（associative-propositional evaluation model, APE）为基础,分析情绪在内隐态度向外显态度转化过程中的作用,以及情绪、态度与行为的关系。研究通过操纵被试的情绪状态（积极或消极）,分析了不同情绪下个体对薯片的外显态度、内隐态度对其在五分钟内食用薯片数量的预测作用。研究发现,外显态度可以预测行为结果;而内隐态度对行为结果的预测受到情绪的调节,积极情绪下内隐态度能够预测行为结果,消极情绪下内隐态度不预测行为结果。因此,与消极情绪相比,积极情绪降低了个体对内隐态度进行修正的可能性,促使个体基于内隐态度直接构建外显态度,从而使得内隐态度能够预测行为结果。研究最后分析了情绪影响内隐态与行为之间关系的心理机制、本研究的理论价值及未来的研究方向。     

矛盾态度对个体信息加工的影响：外显与内隐层面的比较

本研究采用“学习—再认”范式从外显和内隐两个层面探讨了矛盾态度对个体信息加工的影响。结果发现：（1）在两种加工条件下,高外显矛盾态度个体对态度客体信息再认反应时均显著短于低外显矛盾态度个体;（2）在有意加工条件下高内隐矛盾态度个体再认反应时显著长于低内隐矛盾态度个体,在无意加工条件下高低内隐矛盾组的再认反应时差异不显著;（3）对态度客体无关材料高内隐矛盾态度个体再认反应时显著长于低内隐矛盾态度个体,对有关材料二者的反应时差异不显著。该结果表明,外显与内隐的矛盾态度对个体的信息加工具有不同的影响路径,这为进一步探讨外显和内隐矛盾态度对个体心理与行为的影响机制提供了借鉴。     

不同自尊者在赌博情境下的风险规避行为

为了考察不同自尊水平的个体在赌博情境下的风险规避行为,263名大学生被试同时完成外显Rosenberg量表、内隐联想测验和21点赌博游戏。实验结果发现,(1)随着风险的增加,所有被试都表现出风险规避;(2)在高外显自尊水平的个体中,低内隐自尊水平个体比高内隐自尊水平个体表现出更多的风险规避行为;在低内隐自尊的个体中,高外显自尊个体比低外显自尊个体表现出更多的风险规避行为。风险规避行为间接地反映出个体的防御倾向,结果提示,在风险情境中,高外显低内隐自尊个体表现出较高的自我防御倾向。     

向死而生,以财解忧?存在不安全感对物质主义的影响

以大学生为被试,通过情境实验考察存在不安全感对内隐物质主义态度及外显物质主义倾向的影响,并探索潜在的动机机制:控制感寻求的中介作用。结果表明,高存在不安全感组的内隐物质主义态度显著高于低存在不安全感组,控制感寻求在其中起中介作用;但存在不安全感对外显物质主义倾向的影响并不显著。该结果为死亡心理防御的动机机制提供了新的实证依据:对中国被试而言,物质主义也是个体应对存在不安全感的一种策略,该策略可以满足个体寻求确认和控制的需要。     

大学生内隐职业偏见和内隐职业性别刻板印象研究

本研究采用内隐联想测验和相应的外显报告考察了大学生被试在职业偏见和职业性别刻板印象中的态度。结果表明,被试的内隐和外显态度出现了分离,大学生中普遍存在着内隐职业偏见和职业性别刻板印象。该研究再次证明了内隐联想测验是一种有效的测量内隐态度的方法。     

权力感对社会排斥下自我关注的调节作用

采用实验法探讨在回忆和现实排斥情境下,不同社会排斥类型对大学生外显和内隐自我关注的影响及权力感的调节作用。实验1初步证实在两种排斥情境下,与拒绝型相比,忽视型被试的外显和内隐自我关注水平较高。实验2进一步证实权力感在忽视型对外显自我关注的影响中具有调节作用。结果表明,忽视型社会排斥威胁功效需要进而引发个体提高自我关注水平;情境因素对社会排斥产生的影响相同。     

Novel word integration in the mental lexicon: Evidence from unmasked and masked semantic priming

We sought to establish whether novel words can become integrated into existing semantic networks by teaching participants new meaningful words and then using these new words as primes in two semantic priming experiments, in which participants carried out a lexical decision task to familiar words. Importantly, at no point in training did the novel words co-occur with the familiar words that served as targets in the primed lexical decision task, allowing us to evaluate semantic priming in the absence of direct association. We found that familiar words were primed by the newly related novel words, both when the novel word prime was unmasked (Experiment 1) and when it was masked (Experiment 2), suggesting that the new words had been integrated into semantic memory. Furthermore, this integration was strongest after a 1-week delay and was independent of explicit recall of the novel word meanings: Forgetting of meanings did not attenuate priming. We argue that even after brief training, newly learned words become an integrated part of the adult mental lexicon rather than being episodically represented separately from the lexicon.     

Does priming a specific illness schema result in an attentional information-processing bias for specific illnesses?

OBJECTIVE: To test a hypothesis derived from H. Leventhal, D. Meyer, and D. Nerenz's (1980) commonsense model that people possess implicit schemas for specific illnesses. DESIGN: A 2 (illness vs. neutral shopping prime) x 2 (illness-related vs. control word) mixed design with repeated measures on the second factor. Participants primed for the common cold (Experiment 1) and cardiovascular disease (Experiment 2) were compared with participants receiving a neutral shopping prime on a modified Stroop color naming task. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Attentional bias to illness related words was calculated as the difference between response latencies to illness words and neutral words under the prime conditions. RESULTS: In Experiment 1, participants primed with common cold showed a response bias to words related to the common cold but not to words related to cardiovascular disease. Attentional bias among participants primed for common cold was significantly correlated with explicit illness representations assessed by the Revised Illness Perception Questionnaire. Experiment 2 replicated the findings in a different illness domain. CONCLUSION: Illness-specific illness schemas can be activated.     

Word priming without awareness: A new approach to circumvent explicit memory contamination

A major methodological limitation arising in the experimental study of implicit memory is that tasks that are characterized as implicit memory tests can be seriously contaminated by the use of covert explicit memory strategies. Given the evidence indicating that brief presentation of words (below the awareness threshold of subjects) can produce semantic priming, we wondered whether rapid visual presentation of primed words might provide an avenue to produce word priming without explicit memory contamination. Normal subjects were tested for word priming on a speeded category membership decision task. Explicit or implicit encoding procedures were used in four different experiments. Results demonstrated that brief presentation of words can indeed offer a means of producing word priming in absence of explicit recognition or recall of the primed words presented during the study phase. They also showed that such priming is equivalent in degree to the priming measured when using either a conventional implicit memory design or an explicit encoding procedure prior to the study of the primes.     

Word-based grouping affects the prime-task effect on semantic priming

Semantic priming between words is reduced or eliminated if a low-level task such as letter search is performed on the prime word (the prime task effect), a finding used to question the automaticity of semantic processing of words. This idea is critically examined in 3 experiments with a new design that allows the search target to occur both inside and outside the prime word. The new design produces the prime task effect (Experiment 1) but shows semantic negative priming when the target letter occurs outside the prime word (Experiments 2 and 3). It is proposed that semantic activation and priming are dissociable and that inhibition and word-based grouping are responsible for reduction of semantic priming in the prime task effect.     

Reducing prejudice through priming of control-related words

We investigated the effect of incidentally presented constructs that imply self-control on activated stereotypes associated with immigrants. To activate immigrant stereotypes, participants responded to a scale that measures people's prejudice toward immigrants. They were then primed, using scrambled sentences, with words that were related to self-control (e.g., control, restrain, self-regulate) or with neutral words. After the priming task, participants evaluated an ambiguous behavior of a target person. On the basis of three experiments, the results showed that participants primed with the control-related words rated the target behavior more positively than those primed with neutral words. The results are discussed in relation to previous research on self-control, automatic influence of activated constructs, and prejudice reduction.     

The Nature of Attitude

ABSTRACT

Previous research has shown that acute alcohol consumption is associated with negative responses toward outgroup members such as sexual minorities. However, simple alcohol cue exposure without actually consuming alcohol also influences social behavior. Hence, it was reasoned that priming participants with words related to alcohol (relative to neutral words) would promote prejudiced attitudes toward sexual minorities. In fact, an experiment showed that alcohol cue exposure causally led to more negative implicit attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. In contrast, participants’ explicit attitudes were relatively unaffected by the priming manipulation. Moreover, participants’ typical alcohol use was not related to their attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. In sum, it appears that not only acute alcohol consumption but also the simple exposure of alcohol cues may promote negative views toward lesbians and gay men.     

The effect of priming a thin ideal on the subsequent perception of conceptually related body image words

Our research examined the effects of thin ideal priming on the perception of body image words in participants without an eating disorder. Half of the participants were primed by viewing thin models, and half were primed with gender-neutral shoes. Subsequently, all participants (N = 56) completed a Stroop task for three categories of words: neutral (BOOKS), shoe (CLOGS), and body (THIGHS). Lastly, all participants completed a body dissatisfaction questionnaire. We predicted that body dissatisfaction scores would be correlated with the Stroop effect. We found a significant correlation between body dissatisfaction and the body effect of slower color naming times for the body related words compared to the neutral words. Our study demonstrates that body dissatisfaction and a brief priming with thin models results in subsequent differences in performing a Stroop task in a non clinical population of female participants.     

Processing of “unattended” threat-related information: Role of emotional content and context

Unpleasant, pleasant, or neutral visual scenes served as a context for the presentation of threat-related, positive, and neutral words. On each trial, 2 simultaneous prime words (one foveal, i.e., at fixation, and one parafoveal, i.e., 2.2° apart) appeared for 150 ms, followed by a foveally presented probe word in a lexical decision task. Results showed facilitation in response times for probe threat words when primed by an identical parafoveal word, in comparison with priming by an unrelated parafoveal word, and this effect was enhanced in an emotionally congruent unpleasant context. In contrast, no parafoveal effect appeared for positive words, even in a pleasant context. This reveals parallel processing of threat-related words outside the focus of attention.     

Conscious and unconscious lexical retrieval blocking in younger and older adults

The effects of orthographically overlapping prime words in a word fragment completion task (modified from S. M. Smith & D. R. Tindell, 1997) were studied in younger and older adults. Participants studied words and then completed word fragments corresponding to those words. Fragments were preceded by a blocking, unrelated, or neutral prime. In Experiment 1, all participants were slower and less likely to complete the word fragments correctly in the blocking prime condition. Older adults also were more likely to use the blocking prime to incorrectly complete the word fragment compared with younger adults, even when warned against doing so (Experiment 2). Experiment 3 used a masked priming paradigm in younger adults to examine whether conscious processing of the prime word was necessary to produce blocking effects. Reliable blocking effects were obtained, including an intrusion rate similar to that observed in older adults in the first two experiments. These results suggest that certain aspects of word-finding failures in normal aging may be related to the reduced ability to control the activation of a lexical competitor when attempting to retrieve a target word.     

Testing the direct-access model: GOD does not prime DOG

In three repetition priming experiments that employed identical (e.g., DOG-DOG) and reversed repetitions (e.g., GOD-DOG), it was found that relative to controls (e.g., DOG-DOG), GOD-type words did not prime DOG-type words. Also, neither DUT-type nor TUD-type nonwords primed DUT-type nonwords. In Experiments 1 and 2, these results occurred using both long- and short-term repetition priming conditions, respectively. In Experiment 3, the word results held under conditions of short-term priming coupled with stimulus misorientation. However, the nonword results resembled the word results (i.e., identical but not reversed repetitions primed nonwords). The failure to provide explicit evidence for direct visual access (e.g., GOD does not prime DOG while DOG does) irrespective of other sources of lexical activation supports theories of word recognition that postulate multiple and varied lexical representations that are activated through a matrix of connections.