规范错觉对外出就餐中食物浪费的影响：心理机制与应对策略

规范错觉是指个体的规范感知与实际存在于群体中的社会规范之间存在差异, 规范错觉影响了社会生活的方方面面。对957份问卷调查的分析显示, 人们普遍高估了他人的食物浪费(行为错觉)以及对浪费的赞同程度(态度错觉), 而这两种错觉又加剧了人们自身的浪费行为。中介效应检验显示, 印象管理中的社交性维度部分中介了两种错觉与浪费行为间的关系。两个随机对照实验进一步检验了描述性(命令性)规范信息对行为(态度)错觉的影响, 结果发现, 描述性规范信息降低了行为错觉, 并通过社交性减少了浪费行为; 而命令性规范信息并不改变态度错觉本身, 但通过降低态度错觉对浪费的影响而减少了浪费行为。上述结果意味着两种规范信息尽管高度相似, 但其作用机制却可能不同, 同时这一发现也为政策制定者提出了两种干预途径。     

眼睛效应不稳定性的原因阐释：基于主客观因素与心理机制视角

眼睛效应指当呈现直视的眼睛线索时,个体的行为反应会发生明显变化。已有研究表明眼睛线索具有促进亲社会行为、减少反社会行为、提高自我意识等积极效应。然而在部分研究中眼睛效应并不能稳定地出现,导致其不稳定的因素包括眼睛的生理特征、情绪类型、呈现时间、眼神注视方向、任务交互形式、周边人数与噪音、个体自我意识、群体身份和行为成本等。眼睛效应的心理机制包括声誉机制和规则机制等。基于影响因素和心理机制视角解释眼睛效应不稳定性的原因,有助于为其产生稳定的效益提供理论启示。未来可进一步细化眼睛线索的种类来扩展研究的适用范围,结合认知神经科学技术深入探察相关的神经机制,在个体不同的发展阶段展开纵向对比,以及开展实地研究提高该领域研究的生态效度。     

遵守规范为什么十分困难?——关于规范与失范的理论命题探讨

社会成员既是规范的受益者,也是规范的建设者,遵守、维护社会规范也要支付一定的成本.在人们遵守或者违反规范的行为中,可以发现许多公开的或潜在的某些具有规律性的原则.本文提出了社会规范的命题:规范收益的社会预期、规范相对剥夺感、规范需求不平衡、规范的社会成本、规范使用价值、规范的标示性、规范奖赏与惩处、规范的榜样效应、规范遵守的非理性等十个命题.还提出了社会失范的命题:图方便、插队、失范感染、失范累加、失范的"晕轮"效应、失范的隐匿空间、"稻草人"规范、适度压力、规范变动、规范替代等十个命题.     

遵守规范的动机对儿童过度模仿的影响

模仿非任务相关动作的行为被称为过度模仿。研究以94名4-6岁儿童为被试,通过操纵无关动作与结果之间的关系,考察了儿童遵守规范的动机对过度模仿的影响。结果发现,当遵守规范导致不能得到想要的结果时,儿童没有表现出明显的过度模仿;而当遵守规范与得到结果不冲突时,儿童过度模仿的比例显著增加。这些结果说明遵守规范的动机影响儿童的过度模行为,当遵守规范的动机降低时,过度模仿行为减少。     

“惩前毖后”与“率先垂范”：第三方干预行为的影响效应

第三方干预是维持和发展社会规范的关键力量,对整个人类群体具有进化意义。补偿和惩罚是第三方干预的两种主要形式,二者均是维护社会规范的重要力量,具有恢复得失平衡以及促进规范遵从的积极作用。研究者广泛认可威慑效应是第三方惩罚促进规范遵从的主要作用机制,然而也有许多研究结果与该假说相悖。除威慑作用外,第三方干预行为作为高代价信号,也具有澄清社会规范、改变人们规范知觉的作用,这暗示着信号效应可能也是第三方干预促进规范遵从的重要作用机制。探究第三方惩罚促进规范遵从的边界条件、检验第三方补偿等非破坏性措施在维护社会规范方面的有效性是未来研究的重要方向。     

观点采择是否一定促进内隐宽恕?——受害者对伤害动机认同的调节作用

以往研究多认为观点采择可有效促进宽恕,近期研究则开始关注观点采择诱发宽恕等亲社会行为的边界条件。结合“换位体验”和内隐态度测量范式,本研究考察了受害者对伤害动机的认同在被动和自发观点采择影响内隐宽恕过程中的调节作用。实验1发现当人际伤害中存在人们无法认同的恶意不道德动机时,被动和自发观点采择都抑制了受害者对施害者的内隐宽恕且后者的抑制效应更显著。实验2则进一步操纵了不同类型受害者对施害者伤害动机的认同差异,低认同组与实验1结果相同,即被动和自发观点采择中都抑制了内隐宽恕且后者的抑制效应更显著,但高认同组在两种观点采择中都促进了内隐宽恕且二者的促进效应无显著差异。本研究揭示了伤害动机认同在不同类型观点采择影响内隐宽恕过程中起到的调节作用,进一步丰富了对观点采择和宽恕间复杂关系的认识。     

亲社会行为中的“眼睛效应”

呈现眼睛图片就会使人们的行为发生变化即眼睛效应(the watching eyes effect)。名誉机制和规则心理可以解释眼睛效应,但尚未得出一致的结论。虽然大量研究证明亲社会行为中存在眼睛效应,但任务类型、实验情境、暴露时间、匿名性等客观环境以及被试的群体成员身份和个性特征等因素都会影响眼睛效应的发生及其强度。未来研究可以从具身认知的视角深入探讨眼睛效应的进化心理机制,开展眼睛效应的跨文化研究,探讨其背后的脑神经机制,并扩展眼睛效应的应用型研究。     

员工健康状况对亲组织行为的影响机制研究:社会认同视角

本文基于社会认同理论和医学内容,探讨员工躯体和心理健康状况对亲组织行为的影响及其内在机制和边界条件。通过实验和调查、PROCESS回归数据分析等方法发现:员工健康状况通过组织承诺对其亲组织行为产生影响,在强调身份识别的情况下,当员工的躯体和心理健康状况处于良好状态时情感承诺和规范承诺较高、继续承诺较低,员工作为该组织成员的责任感和自豪感增强,主动性更强,促进亲组织行为;当其躯体和心理健康欠佳时,主动性减弱亲组织行为减少。因此,组织承诺在员工健康状况与亲组织行为间具有部分中介效应,且身份识别有效调节健康状况通过组织承诺对亲组织行为的影响。本文最后对研究结果的理论贡献和管理启示进行探讨,提出研究的局限性与未来研究方向。     

预期对注意的影响受制于被预期主体是目标还是分心物

以往研究表明, 预期机制和注意机制都能促进感知行为, 但两者以何种方式共同作用于感知行为仍然存在争议, 特别是, 对于预期主体在其中的作用尚不清楚。本研究采用空间提示以及视觉搜索相结合的范式, 通过4个实验, 考察了当被试对目标进行预期以及对分心物进行预期时, 空间预期对空间注意效应的不同影响。结果显示：(1)当目标为预期主体时, 预期对注意效应具有调节作用; (2)当分心物为预期主体时, 预期与注意的作用独立; (3)当目标为预期主体时, 通过刺激数增加而导致的任务难度变化不影响预期和注意之间的关系。这表明, 空间预期是否影响空间注意效应受制于预期主体——当预期主体为目标时, 预期和注意两者交互式地影响感知行为; 当预期主体为分心物时, 预期和注意独立地影响感知行为; 而且, 预期和注意之间的关系不受任务难度影响。     

第三方惩罚中的规范错觉：基于公正世界信念的解释

惩罚规范在一定程度上会影响个体的惩罚行为, 但个体对惩罚规范的感知与实际规范之间可能存在差异, 这被称为规范错觉。为了更好地从这一角度理解第三方惩罚, 我们需要回答的是：第三方惩罚中是否存在规范错觉?如果存在, 其方向如何?会对个体自身的惩罚行为产生何种影响?实验1 (N = 449)和实验2 (N = 134)的结果表明, 在违规情境中, 人们往往低估了他人的惩罚水平, 这导致自身较低的惩罚行为。实验3 (N = 164)和实验4 (N = 284)进一步发现, 较弱的公正世界信念导致人们对他人惩罚水平的低估, 从而影响了自身的惩罚行为, 而社会距离调节了公正世界信念对规范错觉的影响。上述结果表明, 规范错觉会受到内部(公正世界信念)和外部(社会距离)两个参照点的影响, 同时也在一定程度上说明第三方惩罚是一种注重维护规范的积极行为、而非注重个人收益的策略行为。     

Words or deeds? Choosing what to know about others

Social cooperation often relies on individuals?? spontaneous norm obedience when there is no punishment for violation or reward for compliance. However, people do not consistently follow pro-social norms. Previous studies have suggested that an individual??s tendency toward norm conformity is affected by empirical information (i.e., what others did or would do in a similar situation) as well as by normative information (i.e., what others think one ought to do). Yet little is known about whether people have an intrinsic desire to obtain norm-revealing information. In this paper, we use a dictator game to investigate whether dictators actively seek norm-revealing information and, if so, whether they prefer to get empirical or normative information. Our data show that although the majority of dictators choose to view free information before making decisions, they are equally likely to choose empirical or normative information. However, a large majority (more than 80%) of dictators are not willing to incur even a very small cost for getting information. Our findings help to understand why norm compliance is context-dependent, and highlight the importance of making norm-revealing information salient in order to promote conformity.     

The watching eyes phenomenon: The role of a sense of being seen and public self‐awareness

In recent years, a growing number of researchers have examined the watching eyes phenomenon (i.e., increased prosocial and decreased antisocial behavior when subtle watching eyes are present in the environment). Somewhat surprisingly, the questions of how and under what conditions subtle cues of being watched operate have been unanswered so far. The present contribution addresses this research gap. In two studies, we document that (a) subtle cues of being watched induce a sense of being seen and (b) chronic public self‐awareness moderates the watching eyes phenomenon in that specifically individuals with strong chronic public self‐awareness show more prosocial behavior under conditions of watching eyes. The applicability of subtle cues of being watched in research on social presence is discussed.     

What the World Needs Now: An Intervention for Promoting Prosocial Behavior

Prosocial behavior benefits individuals and society. Thus, the purpose of this study was to develop a new, integrative intervention for fostering prosocial behavior. The intervention combines activities such as watching an elevating video, enacting prosocial behaviors, and reflecting on how those behaviors relate to one’s values. An experiment with 116 adolescents and young adults indicated that the intervention was efficacious in enhancing prosocial behavior and related constructs (e.g., empathy) and that these effects were maintained 1 month later. These results have important implications for understanding and promoting prosocial habits.     

第三方惩罚与社会规范激活——社会责任感与情绪的作用

社会规范需要被激活才能显著影响个体行为,第三方惩罚（TP）正是这样一个激活的过程。本研究将TP引入独裁者博弈（DG）,社会规范被激活的被试参与了TP与DG,未激活的被试只参与了DG。结果表明,前者在TP之后显著提升了DG中的亲社会行为。进一步的分析发现,在社会规范激活过程中,社会责任感越高的个体被激活的程度越高,对违背社会规范的行为产生的愤怒情绪也越高,从而产生了更高水平的亲社会行为。在排除了实验中其他因素和相关理论的解释后,这一基本的实验结果表明社会规范激活受到社会责任感的影响并伴随着特定情绪的激发。     

Social identification and normative conflict: When student and educator learning norms collide

The current paper explores perceived norm conflict, social identification, and learning approaches in the applied context of higher education. Research has established the influence of identification with fellow students, and their perceived norms, on student approaches to learning. However, in the current paper, we argue that this model is not entirely ecologically valid and that students are not the only source of normative influence in the study context. In this first step to unpack these complex normative influences, we examine the next most‐proximal source of normative information—the educator. In essence, we explore the ways that the normative communications of a within‐field educator can also influence student learning approaches and the ways these two sets of normative effects may interact. Testing a sample of undergraduate students at Australian universities, we explore how students resolve conflicting intragroup norm sources. Findings suggest that, in line with previous literature, stronger identification with the field of study is associated with deep learning approaches, and this effect is moderated by perceived student norms such that the valence of the study norms can undermine or accentuate this effect. Novel results unpacking the effects of normative conflict suggest that this moderation effect is only present when educator norms are ambiguous and that, in instances of clearly conflicting normative messages, the identification main effect prevails. The implications and applications are discussed.     

Live interactive group-specific normative feedback reduces misperceptions and drinking in college students: a randomized cluster trial.

This research evaluated the efficacy of a live and interactive group-specific normative feedback intervention designed to correct misperceptions of alcohol-related group norms and subsequently reduce drinking behavior. Campus organizations (N = 20) containing 1,162 college students were randomly assigned to intervention or assessment-only control conditions. Participants in the intervention condition attended an intervention during their organization's regular standing meeting. Data were gathered in vivo using computerized handheld keypads into which participants entered personal responses to a series of alcohol-related questions assessing perceptions of normative group behavior as well as actual individual behavior. These data were then immediately presented in graphical form to illustrate discrepancies between perceived and actual behavioral group norms. Results indicated that compared with the control group, the intervention group reduced drinking behavior and misperceptions of group norms at 1-month and 2-month follow-ups. Changes in perceived norms mediated the reductions in drinking. Results demonstrate the effectiveness of a novel, technologically advanced, group-based, brief alcohol intervention that can be implemented with entire groups at relatively low cost.     

儿童说谎行为的类型与研究范式

说谎行为是儿童社会化过程中的重要表现,儿童说谎行为的发展有利于其认知发展,促进其对社会道德规范的了解和学习,帮助其更好地适应社会的发展。回顾现有的儿童说谎的类型,包括反社会谎言和亲社会谎言,介绍儿童说谎的研究范式以更全面地了解儿童说谎的种类,包括被动说谎范式和主动说谎范式,并在以往研究基础上指出未来可研究方向,如修改范式、增加对亲社会谎言的研究和对特殊儿童的谎言研究等,可以更好地理解儿童说谎的发展过程及实践意义。