具攻击性而被排斥儿童所关心的事情

近来有关同伴排斥行为基础的研究,强调把攻击性作为决定儿童在同伴团体中地位低下的一个因素.被排斥儿童有许多子群,除攻击性被研究过外,其它子群还没有得到研究.本文将讨论一个在中学进行的研究.它把被排斥的学生分成两组:一组为高攻击性组,另一组为易被驱使组.在研究中,我们使用了由Asher、Hymel和Renshaw(1984)发展起来的测量孤独和社会不满(Social dissatisfaction)的方法.     

伦理学教学与道德选择

在历史上,伦理学以什么途径和渠道对人们的道德产生过影响?在当今条件下,它还可能继续产生影响吗? 提出这个问题的本身就为在伦理学与其研究对象的相互作用上区分“现存的东西”和“应有的东西”的必要性奠定了基础。由于这种区分具有具体历史的制约性,所以它不仅取决于伦理或道德方面的可能和需要,而且更加取决于理论的完备,即不是简单地追随着精神生活,而是要“超前反映”人类的精神生活,从而使伦理道德理论成了“宁静日常生活的干涉者”,积极参与着对道德生活进程的指导。     

理解拉丁美洲哲学的途径——关于文化同一性形成的反思

对那些不清楚拉丁美洲思想特殊发展的人来说,拉丁美洲哲学是否存在是他们要提出的第一个问题:“存在拉美哲学这种东西吗?”或者“所指的拉美哲学是什么意思?”产生这些问题,是因为哲学一般地讲并不限定是属于哪种民族和文化的。即使用这样限定的话,一般也不是我们在这里所说的,即“拉丁美洲”,这种限定。哲学一般认为是仅     

人道主义伦理学与理性

1.问题在最近几个世纪中,一种自豪和乐观的精神使西方文化闻名于世:对作为人理解和驾驭自然界的手段的理性的自豪;对实现人类最渴求的希望即为最大多数人取得最大幸福的乐观。人的自豪是有道理的。他凭借着理性创造出一个物质世界,其现实甚至胜过了各种神话故事和乌托邦的梦想与幻想。他利用了各种物质能力,它们将使人类能保证获得有尊严和生产性的存在所必不可少的物质条件,尽管他的许多目的还未达到,但几乎毫无问题,这些目的是能够达到的。生产的问题(这是个老问题)原则上解决了。现在,人在他的历史上第一次能够感觉到,人类统一和为人而征服自然的思想不再是一种梦幻,而是一种现实的可能性。难道他没有理由感到自豪,自信并对人类的将来充满信心吗?     

“人”的概念

“人”的概念是西方哲学中的最中心概念之一,但是毫无疑问,它并不是一个人们具有统一意见并且得到明确定义的对象。这个概念的出现乃是由于人(不论是个人还是人类这一物种)的一种需要:把他们自己理解为一种特殊的和与众不同的东西。并且,这种不同的性质既是形而上学的又是伦理学的。关于人格(personhood)的形而上学的问题乃是何种特质和属性从本质上把人同所有其他类型的实体区分开来的问题;伦理学的问题乃是人的何种东西使得他们既具有道德价值(因此不应该以某些方式对待他们)又具有道德责任(因此对他们的行动能合理地进行褒、贬、奖、罚)的问题。人的形而上学的概念同伦理学概念之间的关系并不总是清楚的:它们是否是相同的概念、相同的实体概念、抑或一个是另一个的充分必要     

先验指号学与第一哲学的范式

本文旨在证明,先验指号学可以理解为第一哲学的一种新范式,就是说,可以理解为语言分析范式的完成。语言分析范式作为第一哲学的第三种范式是继承前两种范式的,即亚里士多德意义上的本体论或形而上学,以及康德意义上(或从笛卡儿到胡塞尔的近代哲学的更广泛意义上)的关于意识的先验哲学。在我看来,新的范式可以“扬弃”(在黑格尔意义上)以前的两种范式。     

Choice between repleting/depleting patches: A concurrent-schedule procedure

Six pigeons responded on two concurrently available keys that defined patches with the following characteristics. Reinforcer stores repleted on a patch as a linear function of time when the bird had last responded to the other patch, or else did not replete. Repletion schedules thus timed only when the bird was absent from the patch. Reinforcer stores on a patch could be depleted and reinforcers obtained, again as a linear function of time, when the bird responded on a key. Depletion schedules thus timed only when the birds were present at a patch. Experiment 1 investigated changing relative depletion rates when repletion rates were constant and equal (Part 1) and changing relative repletion rates when the depletion rates were constant and equal (Part 2). Response- and time-allocation ratios conformed to a generalized matching relation with obtained reinforcer ratios, and there appeared to be no control by the size of the reinforcer stores. In Experiment 2, absolute depletion rates were varied with a pair of unequal repletion rates (Part 3), and absolute repletion rates were varied with a pair of unequal depletion rates (Part 4). Dwell times in the patches were not affected by either variation. Melioration theory predicted the results of Experiment 1 quite closely but erroneously predicted changing dwell times in Experiment 2. Molar maximization theory did not accurately predict the results of either experiment.     

Fixed-ratio pausing: Joint effects of past reinforcer magnitude and stimuli correlated with upcoming magnitude

Pigeons responded on fixed-ratio schedules ending in small or large reinforcers (grain presentations of different duration) interspersed within each session. In mixed-schedule conditions, the response key was lit with a single color throughout the session, and pausing was directly related to the past reinforcer (longer pauses after large reinforcers than after small ones). In multiple-schedule conditions, different colors accompanied the ratios ending in small and large reinforcers, and pausing was affected by the upcoming reinforcer as well as the past one. Pauses were shorter before large reinforcers than before small ones, but they continued to be longer after large reinforcers than after small ones. The influence of the past reinforcer was modulated by the magnitude of the upcoming reinforcer; in the presence of the stimulus before the small reinforcer, the effect of the past reinforcer was enhanced relative to its effect in the stimulus before the large reinforcer. These results show that pausing between ratios is jointly determined by two competing factors: past conditions of reinforcement and stimuli correlated with upcoming conditions.     

Discriminability between alternatives in a switching-key concurrent schedule

Six pigeons were trained to discriminate between two intensities of white light in a symbolic matching-to-sample procedure. These stimuli were then used to signal which schedule was available on the main key in a switching-key concurrent schedule. The concurrent schedules led to a symbolic matching-to-sample phase in which the subject identified the concurrent schedule to which it last responded before a reinforcer could be obtained. The concurrent schedules were varied across conditions. Discriminability, measured during the symbolic matching-to-sample performance, was high throughout and did not differ across the two procedures. Performance in the concurrent schedules was like that typically obtained using these schedules. Delays were then arranged between completion of the concurrent schedules and presentations of the symbolic matching-to-sample phase. A series of conditions with an intervening delay of 10 s showed that both concurrent-schedule performance and symbolic matching-to-sample performance were affected by the delay in a similar way; that is, choice responding was closer to indifference.     

The relationship between attitude,assertiveness and condom use

The Australian study investigated condom-specific assertiveness and condom use as a means of prevention infection from sexually transmitted diseases. 211 men participated including 83 homosexual men (aged 19-62 years) and 128 heterosexual men (aged 17-49) who completed a questionnaire that comprised demographic details such as age, monogamy, and sexual activity as well as attitudinal and assertiveness measures. General assertiveness was measured by the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (RAS) which had been widely used across a wide range of social situations. Assertiveness relating specifically to situations involving condoms was measured by the Condom Assertiveness Scale (CAS). Intention to use condoms was positively related to favorable attitudes, which were related to condom-specific assertiveness for both groups. For the heterosexual men only, general social assertiveness was negatively related to attitudes toward condoms. For both groups, the condom-specific measure of assertiveness was positively correlated with attitudes toward condoms. Condom-specific assertiveness was positively related to general social assertiveness as measured by the Rathus Assertiveness Schedule for the homosexual, but not for the heterosexual men. The negative relationship between general assertiveness and attitude to condoms among the heterosexual men implies that the risk reducing behavior of condom use did not seem to accord with the perceptions of masculinity and social assertiveness among heterosexual men. Thus, female partners of such heterosexual men exhibiting negative attitudes toward condom use combined with assertiveness would have to overcome resistance to insist on the use of condoms. Recently some advertising campaigns have been directed at women. The promotion of condom use among heterosexual men has to deal with the perceptions of condom use as unmasculine behavior.