努力：成本还是奖赏?

努力(Effort)与奖赏系统关系密切。当前关于努力在奖赏加工中的作用存在两个截然相反的观点：努力是一种成本还是一种奖赏?理论模型包括：其一, 努力是一种成本, 会降低奖赏的价值, 相应的理论解释包括内部成本模型、机会成本模型及信号模型等; 其二, 努力能够提升奖赏的价值, 相应的理论解释包括认知失调和努力的合理化模型、习得性勤奋理论及认知需求理论等。这两种观点均得到了来自于动物学、行为学、电生理学以及神经影像学等证据的支持。未来研究需要对努力准确定义, 从时间进程角度对努力的理论进行整合, 进一步考察努力的相关影响因素。     

半个多世纪来中国人的心理与行为变化——心理学视野下的研究

半个多世纪以来, 史无前例的快速社会变迁对中国文化和中国人的心理与行为产生了广泛而深远的影响。现有研究探讨了中国人在十多个方面的心理和行为变化, 包括文化价值、人格特征、自我建构、人际信任、幸福感、情绪、动机、关系、心理健康以及其他社会态度和行为等。总体上, 这些研究勾画出了半个世纪以来中国人心理变化的总体倾向：(1)与现代社会相适应的个体主义价值和心理行为日益盛行; (2)传统社会所强调的集体主义价值虽日渐衰落, 但其部分仍在当代社会主流价值中占有一席之地; (3)多元文化共存将是当下和未来中国社会的重要特征。一些具体的变化还包括：中国人的一般信任在下降、幸福感先下降但近年来有上升的迹象、心理健康总体水平上升但是不同社会群体升降不一致、总体的负性情绪在增加、性观念更为开放和包容等。未来的研究应在广度(内容、领域)和深度(原因、机制和过程)上对现有研究进行拓展, 努力建构能同时解释心理和行为变化一般规律及中国人的变化独特性的理论。     

论当代美学的基本问题与批评形态——“当代美学的基本问题与批评形态”课题申报材料摘录

本项目研究当代美学的基本问题以及当代美学与批评形态的关系。关于"当代"的界定,本项目以"文化经济时代"或表述为"审美资本主义时期"为基本内涵。在西方发达国家主要指20世纪末以来至今的历史时期,在中国社会指20世纪90年代中期以来的历史时段。本项目主张能在纷繁复杂的美学观点和美学理论中努力找到当代美学的基本问题及其理论表述方式,从而为研究和思考美学与当代批评的关系、美学与社会发展变迁关系提供基础。本项目认为,内容与形式的关系问题是美学的基本问题,在不同的社会发展历史阶段,美学对内容与形式关系的研究,有不同的理论重心和不同的研究思路,在不同的理论方法的视野中,"内容"和"形式"的范畴也具有不同的内涵和不同的理论界定。当代美学研究的特点是把内容与形式的关系放到审美活动乃至人类社会生活过程中去研究和把握,放到具体的文化语境中去研究和把握,把内容与形式辩证关系的研究提升到对当代社会的合理性以及历史进步及其代价这个层次上认识和把握。当代美学的基本问题不仅研究审美价值的特殊性,而且研究和思考审美价值与认识价值,与人性、与伦理价值的关系,因而具有深刻的人类学意义。     

语言伦理学——一门新兴的交叉学科

本文以对当前我国公众言语交际实际情况的调查为基础 ,提出了建立语言伦理学的基本构想 ,并探讨了该学科的研究对象和研究任务 ,阐述了该交叉学科产生的理论基础和社会基础以及该学科的理论价值和社会价值。     

权力感对炫耀性亲社会行为的影响

基于高成本价值信号理论, 本文探究了权力感对炫耀性亲社会行为的影响。5个实验的结果表明：权力感促使个体更愿意从事炫耀性亲社会行为, 高(vs. 低)权力感个体更倾向购买炫耀性亲社会产品, 更愿意进行炫耀性捐赠且捐赠金额较高, 也更愿意参与炫耀性善行, 其机制在于高权力感者具有较高的自我矫饰动机。本文对理解权力感对个体行为的影响、丰富权力感与亲社会行为的研究文献有理论贡献, 对有效引导高权力感者从事亲社会行为具有实践价值。     

特质愤怒与反应性攻击的综合认知模型述评

综合认知模型(Integrative Cognitive Model, ICM)整合多个相关理论, 探讨在敌意情境下不同特质愤怒水平的个体反应性攻击行为出现差异的内部认知机制, 构建了敌意解释、反思注意和努力控制三个核心认知加工过程之间的关系模型。该模型具有结构清晰、易于操控等特点, 对该领域的实证研究与理论探索具有启发意义, 并有巨大的应用价值。该理论仍缺乏囊括更多因素的综合实证研究支持, 以及有关的神经生理研究和心理干预探索, 这将是未来研究的重要方向。     

决策中社会价值取向的理论与测评方法

传统经济学决策理论强调利己性假设, 认为个体是理性的并由个人利益所驱动的。但是, 个体在相依情境中的社会动机要比利己性假设更为复杂, 具有较大的个体差异。社会价值取向是指个体在相依情境中对自己收益和他人收益分配的特定偏好, 是一个用来描述个体对他人利益关注程度的个体差异的概念。本文回顾了测量社会价值取向的三优势测量、环形测验和滑块测验等方法, 强调了不同测评方法的优点与不足, 并简要总结了决策、社会认知、共情、亲社会行为等领域内相关的社会价值取向研究。未来的研究则需要探索社会价值取向与不同社会因素的交互作用, 以及不同社会价值取向个体的神经机制等方面的研究。     

西方社会价值取向的研究历程与发展趋势

作为一种相对稳定的人格特质,社会价值取向指个体对于自己和他人结果分配的特定偏好。西方社会价值取向的研究经历了从双维模型到整合模型的发展。这些研究证实了实验室情境以及现实情境下社会价值取向对个体的行为决策和社会认知的影响。人际取向命题的提出是该领域的最新理论进展,情境因素和平等取向在未来研究中将得到更多的关注     

道德伪善的心理学研究述评

道德伪善(moral hypocrisy)是对道德知行脱离进行反思的产物, 反映了道德心理学和社会认知领域的最新进展。从社会学习理论、认知失调理论、社会影响理论和双加工理论四个理论来对道德伪善产生缘由进行了探讨, 并在此基础上对其产生机制进行了阐述。为了避免道德伪善的消极效应与不良后果, 进一步从个体和群体两个层面来探讨了道德伪善的影响因素。考虑到现实生活中过分强调道德伪善的负面价值, 研究积极地审视了道德伪善在诱导认知失调、塑造和培养亲社会行为以及促进组织发展等领域的应用。未来研究需在现有研究基础上, 进一步借鉴反应时和内隐测量技术来对道德伪善进行本土化和跨文化研究, 并对其应用性开展更深入和系统的探讨。     

社会运动研究的国家-社会关系视角

政治机会结构理论是西方社会运动研究近30年来的主流范式.但此理论是基于西方国家政治体制和社会结构所归纳出的经验理论,在解释西方早期社会运动和非西方国家的社会运动方面,存在着自变量和因变量范围过于狭窄、解释能力不足等缺点.本文指出,国家主义理论以及后来进一步发展的国家-社会关系视角是研究社会运动的替代性范式.国家-社会关系清楚定义国家性质、社会性质以及国家与社会关系,对于认识作为集体性抗争政治形式的社会运动具有重要价值.     

Implicit achievement motive limits the impact of task difficulty on effort-related cardiovascular response

In contrast to the motive literature, motivational intensity theory predicts that the implicit achievement motive (nAch) should only exert an indirect impact on effort by limiting the impact of task difficulty. To contrast these two views, sixty-eight participants with a low or high nAch performed an easy or difficult arithmetic task. Effort was assessed using cardiac pre-ejection period (PEP). Supporting motivational intensity theory’s view, PEP response was low in both easy-task conditions but stronger in the high-nAch group than in the low-nAch group in the difficult task. These findings suggest that nAch exerts an indirect effect on effort investment by setting the maximally justified effort instead of directly determining the amount of effort that is invested to satisfy the motive.     

你能看见我的努力吗：社会地位感知对消费者繁简偏好的影响

文章通过5个实验(包括1个预注册实验)探讨了个体感知到的相对社会地位如何影响消费者对产品繁简设计的偏好。实验1和2发现处于相对低社会地位的个体会偏好设计繁复的产品。实验3和4探究了该效应的中介机制, 即繁复设计的产品可以传递出努力线索, 而相对低社会地位个体因为重视努力进而偏好繁复设计产品。实验5通过调节变量的方式进一步验证上述机制, 发现社会地位对繁简偏好的影响只存在于那些重视努力价值的个体身上。文章推进了消费者审美偏好, 主观社会地位和消费者努力等方向的研究进展。     

Forcing your luck: Goal-striving behavior in chance situations

Previous research suggests that desired end-states (i.e., goals) initiate a set of motivational processes supporting goal-attainment. For example, motivational intensity (e.g., effort investment) increases as distance to the goal decreases. The present studies investigate whether this goal-gradient can also be observed in chance determined situations, situations in which there is a desired end-state (i.e., winning) but in which increased effort investment does not support goal-attainment. Three studies provide consistent evidence for the goal-gradient in chance determined situations. We show that participants (in the lab and in a TV game show) invest more effort into goal-directed behavior the closer they get to the end of the game. The moderation of expectancy and value was, however, modest. Interestingly, participants’ self-reports suggest that their dynamic changes in behavior were unintentional and perceived as non-instrumental. Findings are related to theories of goal pursuit and illusory control, and contrasted to the principle of resource conservation, according to which such behavior should not occur.     

Self-focused attention,performance expectancies,and the intensity of effort: Do people try harder for harder goals?

Many theories argue that goal striving is more intense when people have optimistic expectancies for achieving the goal and when attention is self-focused. Brehm’s motivational intensity theory, however, predicts that the intensity of motivation is only as high as necessary, so people will try harder for difficult tasks than for easy tasks, all else equal. The present experiment compared these two approaches by manipulating two levels of self-focused attention (low and high self-awareness, via a mirror) and two levels of task difficulty (easy and difficult). Effort was assessed as cardiovascular reactivity, particularly change in systolic blood pressure. Neither high self-focus nor an easy task per se caused increased effort; instead, high self-focus significantly increased systolic reactivity when the task was difficult. Effort was thus higher despite less optimistic goal expectancies, a finding that is predicted by Brehm’s motivational intensity theory but not by traditional self-regulation models.     

The everyday lives of in- and outpatients when beginning therapy: The importance of values-consistent behavior

Background/ObjectiveThe manifestation of functional impairment in patients’ daily lives and interference with things they value is poorly understood. If values are compromised in patients, as theory suggests, social contexts (and the lack thereof) are especially important – though this is currently unexplored. We therefore examined whether daily values-consistent behavior was associated with the importance of a value and whether it involved social or non-social activity.MethodUsing Event Sampling Methodology, we examined daily values-consistent behavior in 57 transdiagnostic inpatients and 43 transdiagnostic outpatients at the beginning of treatment. Patients’ values-consistent behavior, its importance, and (social vs non-social) context was sampled six times per day during a one-week intensive longitudinal examination.ResultsAcross both groups, the probability of subsequent values-consistent behavior increased if (1) it was judged as more important by the patient or (2) if it was embedded in a social context. The probability of reporting values-consistent behavior was higher for outpatients than inpatients.ConclusionsClinicians are encouraged to examine the values of their patients more closely and to especially monitor important and/or social values. Incorporating these into clinical work might increase patients’ values-consistent behavior, which can play a role in reducing suffering.     

数字生态系统中创业机会的形成与发展：基于社会资本理论的探究

数字创业浪潮方兴未艾, 机会属性变化引起的数字创业机会形成与变化规律尚未被揭示。本研究以数字生态系统作为研究情境, 分析创业者利用数字生态系统可供性积累的社会资本, 如何影响创业机会形成与发展。从机会的合意性维度和内容维度两方面解释创业机会的变化规律, 考察创业者认知监控与新创企业数字化程度对这一路径的调节作用。本研究拓展社会资本理论在数字创业背景下的应用, 深化数字生态系统中的创业机会研究, 有助于指导创业者利用数字平台开展“破坏性创造”, 提升机会识别质量和效率, 促进创业生态系统建设。     

A Closer Look Into the Multi‐Layer Structure of Motivational Intensity Theory

Drawing on the idea that humans aim to avoid wasting energy that is important for survival, motivational intensity theory postulates that task difficulty and success importance determine energy investment. Additionally, the theory makes predictions on how task characteristics moderate the relationship between task difficulty, success importance, and energy investment. In this article, I will show how the different predictions of motivational intensity theory relate to one another and to what extent they can be derived from the fundamental principle of energy conservation. I will also discuss the application of the theory to effort mobilization and cardiovascular reactivity. Specifically, I will discuss the additional assumptions and predictions that are necessary to link these applications to motivational intensity theory’s basic rationale, the energy conservation principle.     

组织中个体主动性行为“利与弊”

个体主动性行为是组织中个体主动做出的面向未来和面向变革的工作行为, 近年来成为组织行为研究领域的重要议题。从现有研究来看: (1)在研究主题上, 多数研究发现了个体主动性行为可以带来正向结果, 个别学者也注意到了个体主动性行为的代价; (2)在分析视角上, 主要包括个体主动性行为对个体层面和组织情境层面的正向与负向影响; (3)在理论机制上, 个体主动性行为的“利弊”效应可用优势互补理论、自我决定理论和归因理论来解释。未来研究可着重进行以下理论整合: (1)从个体主动性行为类型出发, 基于智慧主动性的视角揭示其内在机制; (2)从主动性行为者和观察者特征两面性的视角, 实证探讨其背后机理; (3)从主动性行为主客体特征的发展视角进行动态研究。     

Physical and cognitive effort discounting of hypothetical monetary rewards

Effort discounting refers to the decrease in the subjective value of a reward as the effort required to obtain the reward increases. The main aims of this study were to ascertain whether the amount of the reward affects the steepness of the effort discounting process for hypothetical monetary rewards, to identify whether this steepness depends on the type of effort that is required, and to determine whether the steepness of different types of effort covary at the individual level. Two types of effort were studied under hypothetical choice situations: physical effort and cognitive effort. Both physical and cognitive effort discounting were well described by the hyperbolic model. Large rewards were discounted less steeply than small rewards for both types of effort. This finding agrees with the results of prior studies which have found that larger rewards have greater motivational power. In addition, the steepness of physical effort discounting was positively correlated with the steepness of cognitive effort discounting, which suggests that the effort discounting process is a trait‐like characteristic within an individual.     

药物成瘾者相关线索反应的自动化用药行为特征及其消退

采用ERP技术考察海洛因成瘾者相关线索下的用药行为的性质和神经机制, 在此基础上结合虚拟现实技术(VR)和途径偏向矫正训练(AAT), 探究基于“相关线索-习惯性用药”联结的自动化用药行为的动作消退、替代训练的有效性。研究发现, (1)相比对照线索, 成瘾者在相关线索下的反应时更长, N1波幅更小, N1潜伏期更短; 相比对照组被试, 成瘾者在相关线索下的行为任务的正确率更低, 反应时更长, N1波幅更小; N1波幅的组间组内差异和潜伏期的组内差异主要集中在中央区。(2)结合VR技术的途径偏向矫正训练后, 训练组被试的生理指标和途径偏向系数显著降低, 且显著低于对照组被试; 追踪测试中, 训练组被试的分数显著低于对照组。这表明相关线索下成瘾者的用药行为具有自动化、无意识的性质, 感觉运动区N1的异常活动是其神经机制之一。VR提取用药动作记忆-AAT消退替代训练, 可以有效削弱或消退成瘾者的成瘾动作倾向, 而且训练效果持续性较好, 可达到减少或停止现实情境中的用药和复吸行为的目的。