不同情境下临场自我调节学习活动对学习结果的中介影响

探讨在两种学习目标（大致浏览与全面掌握）与两种时间压力（无时间限制提示与有时间限制提示）的情境下,６０名被试的临场自我调节学习活动水平对两种学习结果（选择题测验与作文）的中介影响。结果表明,在不同情境下,无论学习目标高低或时间压力大小,被试的选择题测验成绩均不存在显著差异;而作文成绩均存在显著差异;被试的临场自我调节学习活动存在显著差异;被试的部分临场自我调节学习活动对学习结果具有中介影响。     

学习任务要求与时间压力对实际自我调节学习活动的影响

探讨两种学习任务要求与两种时间压力是如何通过57名被试的临场情境评估状况而影响其实际自我调节学习活动水平的。结果表明,无论学习任务难易还是时间大小,被试的实际自我调节学习活动水平均存在显著差异;被试临场情境评估状况中的临场动机控制状况不存在显著差异,而临场主观目标存在显著差异;学习任务要求与时间压力对实际自我调节学习活动的影响是以被试的临场主观目标为中介的。     

学习目标要求和时间压力对多媒体环境下自我调节学习活动的影响

探讨在多媒体学习环境中高低不同的2种学习目标要求(作文目标与测验目标)要求与大小不同的2种时间压力(无时间限制提示与有时间限制提示)是如何通过61名被试的临场情境评估状况而影响其自我调节学习活动水平的。结果表明,在多媒体学习环境中,无论学习目标高低还是时间压力大小,被试的自我调节学习活动水平均存在显着差异;被试的临场动机控制状况(自我效能感、兴趣和情绪状态)不存在显着差异,而临场主观目标(目标方向与准备付出的努力程度)存在显着差异;学习目标要求与时间压力对实际自我调节学习活动的影响是以被试的临场主观目标为中介的。     

成人后期日常能力自评与操作水平的横断比较

采用自我评估与纸笔操作相结合的方法 ,对 2 3 3名 55至 74岁的成人后期被试完成七项日常活动的能力进行横断比较。结果表明 :自评能力与操作能力既存在一定的一致性 ,也存在相当大的差异性 ,各活动项目上的自评水平比操作水平要高 ;操作水平表现出随年龄增长而下降的趋势 ,从 70岁开始下降最为明显 ,而自评水平未呈现出这种变化特点 ;不同活动领域上的操作水平存在不同的发展轨迹 ;在少数活动领域具有显著的性别差异     

视觉表象眼动的变化：知识还是技能表征的差异？

以表象看到一个运动员完成三级跳远项目为实验任务,对表象任务的信息通达水平、眼动注视点的活动位置和被试对三级跳远项目的知识水平和技能水平进行系统的操纵,通过2个实验探讨了视觉表象眼动的变化是基于知识学习表征差异还是技能训练表征差异的问题。实验1以没有三级跳远运动专业技能知识且对该运动的认知水平也较低的大学生为被试,结果表明,在完成高信息通达水平的表象任务时,注视点需要较短的持续时间,但眼跳距离会增大,眼跳频率会变低;实验2对表象任务的知识学习表征水平和技能训练表征水平进行操纵,分别以对实验任务进行过知识学习和专业技能训练的人为被试,结果表明,随着被试知识习得水平和技能水平表征能力的提高,不同表象任务信息通达水平间的眼动差异将消失,但知识学习和技能表征的差异在平均眼跳时间上有差异,技能训练型的被试其平均眼跳时间要短于知识学习型被试,达到临界水平显著,注视点平均持续时间和平均眼跳距离等均没有差异。     

语音辨析训练对方言儿童语音意识和阅读能力发展的作用

本研究通过汉语拼音和128个汉字的特别语音辨析或常规教学对40名普通话儿童和40名福州话-普通话双语儿童进行了声母、韵母和声调方面的训练并且观测其对词汇阅读能力的影响.两类被试各分为两组,每组20人, 一组接受特别训练,另一组接受常规教学式训练,为期24天,每天30分钟.结果显示,两种不同训练对两类被试产生不同效应:两种不同训练对普通话被试没有显著的效果差异,而对方言被试却有显著差异.特别训练对方言被试的语音意识和词汇阅读水平有显著的促进作用,常规训练没有这种促进作用.文章对这种训练效应产生的机制进行了讨论.     

知识背景对觉察配对词间语义联系的影响

研究探讨了生物领域知识丰富者和贫乏者判断来自生物领域或一般领域亲疏度不同的配对词间联系的差异。采用2（生物领域丰富者和贫乏者）×2（生物领域配对词和一般领域配对词）×2（语义关系疏远配对词和语义关系密切配对词）混合实验设计,要求被试尽快判断4种类型共120组配对词的两个词间是否存在语义上的联系。结果发现：生物领域知识丰富者比贫乏者更倾向于接受生物领域配对词间的联系,且在判断生物领域关系疏远配对词时花费更长时间;而两者在判断一般领域配对词间的联系时,无论在接受性或反应时上均不存在差异。这一结果说明,知识背景影响个体觉察特定范畴或特定领域中观念间联系的敏感性,觉察观念间联系的能力表现出领域特殊的特征。     

听力障碍初中生自我决定能力的基本特点及社会支持的作用

以125名聋校听力障碍初中生为被试,采用问卷法探讨该群体自我决定能力的基本特点及社会支持对其自我决定能力的作用。结果发现：（1）听力障碍初中生的自我决定能力整体水平不高;（2）不同性别、障碍程度的听力障碍初中生的自我决定能力间差异不显著,而不同年龄段、年级、父母受教育水平的听力障碍初中生的自我决定能力间存在显著差异;（3）年级、教师工具性支持、母亲价值增进支持是听力障碍初中生自我决定能力的显著正向预测指标。     

聋人与听力正常人拓扑性质差异知觉的比较实验研究

分别选取15名聋人与15名听力正常人被试,在两种刺激图对呈现时间条件下,通过考察其对拓扑性质等价和拓扑性质差异图对的反应,本研究对聋人与听力正常人的拓扑性质差异知觉进行了比较研究。研究结果表明:(1)两种呈现时间条件下,被试对拓扑性质等价图对的反应均优于拓扑性质差异图对。(2)对于拓扑性质等价图对,被试在两种呈现时间条件下的反应不存在显著差异;而对于拓扑性质差异图对,被试则对长时间呈现的反应优于短时间呈现。(3)聋人与听力正常人在两种呈现时间条件下对两类刺激图对的反应均不存在显著差异。(4)对于聋人来说,刺激图对长时间呈现和短时间呈现的反应不存在显著差异;而对于听力正常人来说,刺激图对长时间呈现的反应则优于短时间呈现。     

歧视知觉与农村留守青少年的孤独感:亲子分离年龄和分离时长的作用

以1177名农村留守青少年为被试（包括394名双亲外出青少年和783名父亲外出青少年）,考察其歧视知觉和孤独感之间的关系,并检验亲子分离年龄和分离时长在其中的调节作用。结果发现：（1）双亲外出青少年的歧视知觉水平显著高于父亲外出青少年,留守男生的孤独感显著高于女生;（2）歧视知觉能够显著正向预测留守青少年的孤独感,且对双亲外出青少年孤独感的预测作用强于父亲外出青少年;（3）与亲子分离年龄较大相比,在亲子分离年龄较小的情况下,歧视知觉对双亲外出青少年孤独感的预测作用更强;与亲子分离时间较长的青少年相比,在亲子分离时间较短的情况下,歧视知觉对两类留守青少年孤独感的预测作用更高;（4）亲子分离时长对歧视知觉与父亲外出青少年孤独感之间关系的调节作用因亲子分离年龄不同而有所差异。     

Capturing the Naturally Occurring Superior Performance of Experts in the Laboratory: Toward a Science of Expert and Exceptional Performance

ABSTRACT— Expertise researchers have traditionally shied away from studying the highest levels of achievement in favor of studying basic cognitive processes, such as memory and categorization. In this article, we present a different approach that is focused on capturing superior (expert) performance on representative tasks that reveal the essential characteristics of expertise in a given domain. In domains where expert performance is measurable, acquisition is gradual and the highest levels are only attained after 10 years of intense preparation—even for the most "talented." Analyses of reproducibly superior performance show that it is mediated by physiological adaptations and cognitive skills acquired as a result of the cumulative effects of special practice activities (deliberate practice). It appears that the genes necessary to attain such adaptations and expert skills can be activated in healthy children—the only clear exceptions to date being genes that control body size and height. Our knowledge of how experts acquire their superior skills provides insights into the potential for human adaptation and skill acquisition and has important implications for theories of the structure of general and expert cognition, as well as for training interventions in applied psychology and education.     

Use of relaxation skills in differentially skilled athletes

ObjectivesTo examine the use of relaxation skills by differentially skilled athletes in relation to the deliberate practice framework.DesignDifferentially skilled athletes completed a survey about their use of relaxation skills.Method150 athletes representing three skill levels (recreational, college, and professional) completed the deliberate relaxation for sport survey, which assessed relaxation on three deliberate practice dimensions (relevancy, concentration, and enjoyment); time spent in different relaxation skills in a recent typical week; and functions of relaxation.ResultsAthletes perceived relaxation as relevant to performance, requiring concentration, and enjoyable, and the relationships between these dimensions were positive. Professional and college athletes perceived relaxation as more relevant to effective competition than recreational athletes. Professional athletes engaged in more relaxation in a typical week than college and recreational athletes. In a typical week, autogenic, eastern, and muscle relaxation types were used least, deep breathing, meditation, and imagery relaxation types moderately, and stretching most. Athletes reported the primary functions of relaxation were to cope with competitive anxiety and promote recovery but relaxation was also reported to be used to cope with “everyday” anxieties associated with being an athlete. More physical (e.g., muscle relaxation) than mental relaxation types were used in relation to coping with competitive anxiety, whereas more mental (e.g., meditation) than physical relaxation types were used in relation to coping with everyday anxiety.ConclusionsThe study provides support for the sport-specific framework of deliberate practice in relation to use of relaxation skills and informs the current understanding of self-regulation by athletes.     

Coordination Processes of Mental Transformations of Patterns: Practice and Transfer Effects

Regulation and monitoring of successful performance in complex tasks requires decisions regarding which processes to engage in and in what order. Coordination of these activities appears to be a separable aspect of the demands imposed on working memory by cascaded serial processes (Carlson & Lundy, 1992). In the experiments presented here, subjects indicated whether symbolically suggested transformation rules (rotation, reflection) correctly described the difference between two patterns of filledin squares within a 3x3 matrix. Two experiments were carried out with different levels of practice and common transfer tasks. Our aim was to provide evidence for an executive coordinating mechanism on the basis of differential practice and transfer effects. The following results were obtained: (1) Coordination complexity (Mayr & Kliegl, 1993) has a nonadditive effect on transformation time at all levels of practice, suggesting that a substantial deal of time is spent on processes other than executing transformations. (2) Performance on the transfer task indicated that the practised coordination skill was generalised under the conditions of the experiment. Level of practice influenced the transfer pattern, showing more specificity in transfer after extended practice. Taken together, the nonadditive effect as well as the transfer effect suggest that coordination cost reflects separable processing demand. The results constrain the type of interaction between the visual working memory system and the central control component of multicomponent working memory models (Baddeley, 1989).     

Deliberate practice among South African small business owners: Relationships with education,cognitive ability,knowledge, and success

The study examines antecedents and outcomes of deliberate practice activities in South African small businesses. Deliberate practice consists of individualized self‐regulated and effortful activities aimed at improving one's current performance level. Interview and questionnaire data from 90 South African business owners showed a direct impact of deliberate practice on entrepreneurial knowledge as well as an indirect effect on business growth via entrepreneurial knowledge. Cognitive ability and education were identified as antecedents of deliberate practice. Findings underline the importance of continuous proactive learning efforts in small business. The results of this study are relevant for policy makers, consultants, and credit providers.     

Deliberate practice predicts performance over time in adolescent chess players and drop‐outs: A linear mixed models analysis

In this study, the longitudinal relation between deliberate practice and performance in chess was examined using a linear mixed models analysis. The practice activities and performance ratings of young elite chess players, who were either in, or had dropped out of the Dutch national chess training, were analysed since they had started playing chess seriously. The results revealed that deliberate practice (i.e. serious chess study alone and serious chess play) strongly contributed to chess performance. The influence of deliberate practice was not only observable in current performance, but also over chess players' careers. Moreover, although the drop‐outs' chess ratings developed more slowly over time, both the persistent and drop‐out chess players benefited to the same extent from investments in deliberate practice. Finally, the effect of gender on chess performance proved to be much smaller than the effect of deliberate practice. This study provides longitudinal support for the monotonic benefits assumption of deliberate practice, by showing that over chess players' careers, deliberate practice has a significant effect on performance, and to the same extent for chess players of different ultimate performance levels. The results of this study are not in line with critique raised against the deliberate practice theory that the factors deliberate practice and talent could be confounded.     

How Do Creative Experts Practice New Skills? Exploratory Practice in Breakdancers

How do expert performers practice as they develop creatively? This study investigated the processes involved in the practice of new skills by expert breakdancers. A great deal of evidence supports the theory of “deliberate practice” (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch‐Römer, 1993, Psychological Review, 100, 363) in skill acquisition; however, expert creative performers may emphasize other forms of practice for skill development. Four case studies collected through fieldwork and laboratory observation were analyzed to evaluate expert dancers’ practice processes as they developed proficiency in new, specific skills. We focused on three aspects of learning: the degree of skill acquisition, the content of skills included in practice, and dancers’ stated purposes for practicing. The results showed that dancers’ practice improved skills (as suggested by deliberate practice) and engaged the exploration of new, original skills, along with coordinating skills within performance. In their practice, these dance experts went beyond deliberative practice to highly exploratory processes for skill development.     

A deliberate practice account of typing proficiency in everyday typists

The concept of deliberate practice was introduced to explain exceptional performance in domains such as music and chess. We apply deliberate practice theory to intermediate-level performance in typing, an activity that many people pursue on a regular basis. Sixty university students with several years typing experience participated in laboratory sessions that involved the assessment of abilities, a semistructured interview on typing experience as well as various typing tasks. In line with traditional theories of skill acquisition, experience (amount of typing since introduction to the keyboard) was related to typing performance. A perceptual speed test (digit-symbol substitution) and a measure of motor abilities (tapping) were not significantly related to performance. In line with deliberate practice theory, the highest level of performance was reported among participants who had attended a typing class in the past and who reported to adopt the goal of typing quickly during everyday typing. Findings suggest that even after several years of experience engagement in an everyday activity can serve as an opportunity for further skill improvement if individuals are willing to push themselves.     

Effects of variation in teacher organization on classroom functioning

This study examined effects of variation in teacher organization on how time is spent in classrooms, focusing on time spent in transitions and instruction, including child skill by teacher organization interactions. Forty-four first-grade classrooms were observed three times over the school year. Timed narratives of each activity were recorded. “Orient-organize” referred to time teachers spent orienting students to classroom procedures or organizing the class for specific assignments, and included instructional clarity, where teachers described objectives of activities to students. Using hierarchical linear modeling, substantial variation across teachers in orient-organize was observed. Overall, classrooms spent less time in organization as the school year progressed. In addition, spending more time in organization was related to less time spent in transition. Students in classrooms that spent more time in organization in the fall also experienced greater amounts of time in child-managed activities in the spring. There was also an interaction between child vocabulary and amount of orient-organize in the winter. Students with lower vocabulary scores were more likely to be in classrooms that spent more time in spring child-managed activities if they continued to receive substantial amounts of orient-organize in the winter. The opposite was the case for students with high vocabulary skills.     

The effects of speed on skilled chess performance

Two types of mechanisms may underlie chess skill: fast mechanisms, such as recognition, and slow mechanisms, such as search through the space of possible moves and responses. Speed distinguishes these mechanisms, so I examined archival data on blitz chess (5 min for the whole game), in which the opportunities for search are greatly reduced. If variation in fast processes accounts for substantial variation in chess skill, performance in blitz chess should correlate highly with a player's overall skill. In addition, restricting search processes should tend to equalize skill difference between players, but this effect should decrease as overall skill level increases. Analyses of three samples of blitz chess tournaments supported both hypotheses. Search is undoubtedly important, but up to 81% of variance in chess skill (measured by rating) was accounted for by how players performed with less than 5% of the normal time available.     

Understanding deliberate practice in preschool-aged children

Deliberate practice is essential for skill acquisition and expertise and may be a direct consequence of episodic foresight. However, little is known about how deliberate practice develops in children. We present two experiments testing children's ability to selectively practise a behaviour that was going to be useful in future and to reason about the role of practice in skill formation. Five-year-olds demonstrated an explicit understanding of deliberate practice both in selectively choosing to practise a future-relevant skill and in predicting skill change in others based on their practice. Four-year-olds showed some capacities, but failed to demonstrate consistent understanding of the relationship between practice and skill improvement. Children's understanding of this relationship was significantly related to their understanding of how information leads to knowledge, suggesting that both may draw on similar cognitive developmental changes.