Changing the response unit from a single peck to a fixed number of pecks in fixed-interval schedules

Each of three pigeons was studied first under a standard fixed-interval schedule. With the fixed interval held constant, the schedule was changed to a second-order schedule in which the response unit was the behavior on a small fixed-ratio schedule (first a fixed-ratio 10 and then a fixed-ratio 20 schedule). That is, every completion of the fixed-ratio schedule produced a 0.7-sec darkening of the key and reset the response count to zero for the next ratio. The first fixed-ratio completed after the fixed-interval schedule elapsed produced the 0.7-sec blackout followed immediately by food. These manipulations were carried out under two different fixed-interval durations for each bird ranging from 3 min to 12 min. The standard fixed-interval schedules produced the typical pause after reinforcement followed by responding at a moderate rate until the next reinforcement. The second-order schedules also engendered a pause after reinforcement, but responding occurred in bursts separated by brief pauses after each blackout. For a particular fixed-interval duration, post-reinforcement pauses increased slightly as the number of pecks in the response unit increased despite large differences in the rate and pattern of key pecking. Post-reinforcement pause increased with the fixed-interval duration under all response units. These data confirm that the allocation of time between pausing and responding is relatively independent of the rate and topography of responding after the pause.     

Good behavior game: effects of individual contingencies for group consequences on disruptive behavior in a classroom

Out-of-seat and talking-out behaviors were studied in a regular fourth-grade class that included several "problem children". After baseline rates of the inappropriate behaviors were obtained, the class was divided into two teams "to play a game". Each out-of-seat and talking-out response by an individual child resulted in a mark being placed on the chalkboard, which meant a possible loss of privileges by all members of the student's team. In this manner a contingency was arranged for the inappropriate behavior of each child while the consequence (possible loss of privileges) of the child's behavior was shared by all members of this team as a group. The privileges were events which are available in almost every classroom, such as extra recess, first to line up for lunch, time for special projects, stars and name tags, as well as winning the game. The individual contingencies for the group consequences were successfully applied first during math period and then during reading period. The experimental analysis involved elements of both reversal and multiple baseline designs.     

Stimulus control in the goldfish after massed extinction

Compared with the data of goldfish trained only with stimuli correlated with reinforcement, interspersed reinforcement-stimulus and extinction-stimulus trials resulted in sharper stimulus control and a marked reduction in the percentage of key-presses emitted in the presence of stimuli located near the extinction stimulus on the test dimension. If non-reinforced trials were not interspersed with reinforced trials, there was no sharpening of stimulus control and less reduction in key presses in the presence of stimuli near the extinction stimulus on the test dimension.     

伦理学的规范及其社会使命

苏联伦理学专业工作者在《高等学校马克思主义伦理学基础》教学大纲草案中,把马克思主义伦理学的规范问题作为一个专题进行了研究。可以说,它是当前苏联学术界对这一科学命题的各种看法的总结。马克思主义伦理学被理介为“关于道德发展的社会本质和规律性、关于共产主义道德形成的规律性、关于道德原别与道德规范和它在争取共产主义社会的斗争中的作用”的科学。对这一概念,肯定要做仔细的分析研究工作。这     

论马克思主义对于人的本质的理解

人的本质问题是一个重要的哲学问题,它在现代思想斗争中占有重要地位。在对人的本质的理解上,马克思主义同露骨的神学观念、唯心主义观念和人本学观念发生了冲突。神学观念的出发点是,人的特征、人的本质是由超自然的、神的本原所决定的,而人的得到拯救是同承认造物主本人的意志联系着的,是同根据神所感召的唯灵主义道德原则来确定信徒的一切思想、情感和行动联系着的。它认为只有在彼岸世界     

今日的辩证法

M.馬尔科維奇的《今日的辯证法》一文,是南斯拉夫杂志《我們的主题》一九六三年第九期(辯证法問題专号)的第一篇文章。作者强調指出,辯证法作为普遍的哲学方法,不仅是获得知識的方法,而且是研究和解决人道主义問题、确定人們活动的目的和手段的方法。作者认为当代大多数論述辯证法的著作的“根本缺点”在于:对辯征法范疇缺乏确切的說明,把辯证法原則解釋成絕对的教条,辯证法的論证和运用有很大局限性。而那些反对所謂教条主义的“馬克思主义者”,也极不关心辯证法问題。作者认为,辯证法就是普遍的哲学的方法論、方法、理論、实踐和事物本身的辯证法。作者认为辯证的原則和非辯证的原则在实踐經驗上都有一定根据,辯证法原則不能完全駁倒非辯证的原則。作者在談到自然辯证法时,肯定自然辯证法的存在。但认为自然辯证法和人的辯证法是不可分的。作者在强調人是自然的人,自然是人的自然,主体和客体密切联系时,否定了物质第一性、意識第二性的原則,攻击了恩格斯坚持的辯证唯物主义反映論。作者认为,革命就是促进人的解放,辯证法就是促进自然人化,实現人的自然(本性)的革命的方法。作者把馬克思主义的共产主义說成是一般人道主义的共产主义.作者认为,进步的最高标准是人的全面解放,在現有历史条件下实現最大限度的人性自由;辯证法就是实現进步的理論和方法。总之,作者力图用資产阶級的人性論、人道主义来曲解辯证法,修正馬克思主义哲学的基本原理。     

人道主义作为一种宗教

本文是谭·胡尔发表在《哲学与现象学研究》“塞拉斯纪念专号”(第15卷第1期)上的一篇吹捧塞拉斯的人道主义的文章。作者说,人道主义者是“反唯灵论者”,他们由于不愿“一笔勾销”“在文化史上起过深入人心的作用的”宗教,因而“面临了把宗教纳入他们的体系的问题”。人道主义者不同于宗教徒之处在于,他们认为“人自身即是价值之所在”,“宗教只不过是对人的生活的价值的忠诚”,在理智已经成熟的今天,人道主义是“宗教的逻辑发展的归结”。人道主义老提出宗教有非科学的“教条主义和出世性”,这是今天的人们不能容忍的;基督教“对普通人的道德尊严、人的手足之情和对慈善与博爱的强调”是人道主义者应该学习的,“如果我们能够成功地渡过当前的危机,不用原子弹彼此炸死的话,我们可能将学会立定脚根……甚至为逐步建立……善的生活而工作。”作者最后叙述了进化自然主义与人道主义的关系,人道主义对人的认识能力的看法,并强调人道主义在实践上成为未来的宗教的可能性。     

The effects of violence on infants and young children: international perspectives on prevention

People become subject to political and social violence when governments fail to give priority to basic health care or education. Attempts to meet foreign obligations also produce severe economic recessions which further impede efforts to improve the general quality of life of disadvantaged populations. Since multiple factors contribute to violence, a multidisciplinary approach is best suited to address the problem. For example, poverty and its associated risks are linked to violence, but living in poverty does not necessarily engender violence. Living in poverty may, however, fuel high rates of child mortality, illiteracy, malnutrition, excessive population growth, street children, and familial disintegration. An integrated action program was developed in Brazil for at-risk individuals and their families based upon the idea of building and reinforcing family ties and intergenerational togetherness. Undernourished infants, street children, the handicapped, women subjected to violence, and neglected senior citizens received special interventions in the program described in the text.     

科学的统一

1.分类与系统论自有了科学以来,自有了欧洲哲学以来,人们就梦想着科学的统一,梦想着能有一个统一的科学体系。即使在科学哲学创立之前,希腊人的思想就发展到了这一步,即认为甚至科学和哲学也能构成一种哲学的统一。这种观点的影响早已烟消云散了。今天,在这种观点一度占支配地位的那些领域中,我们不断发现了一些未曾阐述清楚的经验关系和系统关系。我们不再讨论科学(与或不与哲学)的统一,而是讨论学科性、多学科性和学科间性,抚昔追今,我们所探讨的知识秩序已不再能用知识本     

Role of eye and hand initial position in the directional coding of reaching

To investigate the nature of the frames of reference used to control an arm movement aimed at a visual target, we studied the accuracy of movements differing by the initial arm and eye positions. The results support the assumption that in darkness target location is internally represented in an egocentric frame of reference. Furthermore, when movements carried out with and without eye saccade are compared, it appears that foveating the target changes the reference used to generate the reaching arm movements, that is, the oculocentric reference is replaced by a head-trunk reference. An explanation for this phenomenon could be that a steady body-related landmark is needed to insure stable registering of the target location in the surrounding space, despite displacement of the body segments with respect to one another.