非熟练的韩国汉语学习者合成词加工中词优效应的特点

词优效应是语言学习中的一个普遍现象。关于英语母语者和汉语母语者的研究都发现了词优效应。本研究关注非熟练的韩国汉语学习者的中文词汇加工中的词优效应,共两个实验:实验1考察汉字的频率对非熟练的韩国汉语学习者中文词汇加工中词优效应的影响;实验2考察汉字和词之间的语义关系(词汇的结构)对非熟练的韩国汉语学习者中文词汇加工中词优效应的影响。实验1的结果发现,字频并未对非熟练的韩国汉语学习者中文词汇加工中的词优效应产生影响,非熟练的韩国汉语学习者在高频字和低频字的识别中都出现了词优效应,且词优效应的大小没有显著差异。这说明非熟练的韩国汉语学习者在高、低频字的识别中都依赖于自上而下的词汇水平的激活。实验2的结果发现,汉字和词之间的语义关系(词汇结构)影响词优效应,相对于并列结构的词汇加工,在偏正结构的词语加工中更容易出现词优效应。这个结果表明词汇的结构通过影响词水平和字水平之间的交互激活,进而影响中文词汇加工中的词优效应。     

加工水平及词对类型在新异联系形成中的作用

该研究采用过程分离方法和知觉辨认方法探讨不同加工水平和词对类型在新异联系形成中的作用。结果表明,深加工是形成非相关词对间联想启动的条件之一。另外,具体词对的联想启动没有表现出加工水平效应,出现了内隐和外显记忆的分离现象,提示不同的词对类型与加工水平间存在着交互作用,当联系程度较紧时,并不一定需要语义加工,而联系程度不紧时,语义加工则是必要的。     

词素效应到底是什么？——来自维吾尔语的证据

利用维吾尔语的一些特点,采用视觉－视觉启动、听觉－视觉跨通道启动、和延迟重复启动等三种启动技术,改变目标词和启动词之间在词素、词形以及语义上的多种关系,通过比较启动效应的异同,来考察词素效应是否可以还原为词形启动效应、语义效应,是否可以看成是词形和语义在实时加工中相互作用的后果,从而探讨词汇加工中词素效应的实质。实验一发现,在明确配对的视觉－视觉和跨通道启动中,启动词和目标词之间只有在具有词素加语义关系（＋m＋o＋s / D,＋m＋o＋s / R;其中,m 代表词素,o 代表词形,s 代表语义,D 代表目标词为派生词,R代表目标词为自由词根;＋ 表示启动词和目标词之间在某个维度上相关,－表示启动词和目标词之间在某个维度上无关）时或者仅仅具有语义关系（－m－o＋s / D）时,才有显著的启动效应。如果启动词与目标词之间仅仅具有词素（词形）关系,而没有语义关系（＋m＋o－s / D）,或者仅仅具有词形关系（－m＋o－s / R）,它们之间的启动效应微乎其微。实验二通过使用维吾尔语中的借词和延迟启动技术,比较了词素加语义加词形（＋m＋o＋s / D）的启动和语义加词形启动（－m＋o＋s / D）以及语义启动（－m＋o＋s / D）,发现词素启动效应并没有不同于其他启动条件下的效应。两个实验都表明,语义关系是产生启动效应的关键,没有语义相关,就不可能产生词素启动,词素效应依赖于语义效应。有了语义关系,词素关系和词形关系产生的作用很小。因此,词汇加工的词素效应是词形和语义统计学规律的反应,是词形和语义加工相互作用的后果,心理词典中并不需要明确地表征词汇结构。     

中-英双语语义通达机制的启动效应实验

采用不同加工水平的词汇判断任务,考察了启动刺激对目标刺激的启动效应,来探讨中英双语的语义通达机制。被试为大学生38名。结果发现：当启动刺激（英）和目标刺激（英）之间存在语义联想关系,得到了显著的启动效应（实验一）;当启动刺激（中）和目标刺激（英）之间存在语义联想关系,也得到了显著的跨语言启动效应（实验二）;当启动刺激（中）的翻译对等词和目标刺激（英）之间存在语音相同或相近关系时,采用基于语音的词汇判断任务,也得到了显著的跨语言启动效应。这一结果表明,对于中英双语者来说,第二语言的词汇表征既直接通达语义概念表征,又可以借助第一语言的词汇表征为中介再通达语义概念表征。     

时间修饰词内隐记忆的实验研究

用词汇线索联想的内隐记忆实验范型,对48个时间修饰词进行概念启动效应的实验研究,探讨时间修饰词内隐记忆的特点和内隐时间表征存在的可能性。结果表明：学过的词和末学过的词之间词汇线索联想的启动值有显著差异;词汇线索联想和词汇线索回忆两种作业平均击中率的差异效应显著;被试完成两种作业依据的判定标准依次为：词的意义、词的时间属性(长度、时间单位)、过去生活经验等。对时间修饰词的内隐表征进行了初步讨论。     

汉语搭配信息对词汇识别的影响

采用词汇判断任务,探究汉语词汇识别中搭配信息的作用。研究表明:(1)汉语母语者对搭配信息敏感,高频搭配能显著促进词汇识别;(2)与高频搭配在语义关系上高度相近的词对词汇识别无促进效应;(3)以逆序形式呈现的高频搭配亦能促进词汇识别,但其效应弱于正序。本研究为词汇搭配知识的存储和加工方式的理论建构提供了依据:互为搭配关系的词语在词汇层面建立了具有方向性的联结,其联结强度取决于语言使用中的搭配共现频率;而在对搭配信息的前词汇加工过程中没有语义作用的参与。     

中国二语学习者英语句子加工的心理机制初探:以主动句为例

操纵不同违例类型（语义单违例、句法单违例、双违例）及不同的违例词位置（句中、句尾）,运用ERPs技术初步探讨了中国大学生二语（英语）学习者英语简单句的心理加工过程。结果发现,中间句法单违例诱发了早期左前负波（ELAN）,句尾句法单违例引发了正波（P600）。句尾语义单违例诱发的负波（N400）波幅显著大于中间语义单违例。即存在违例关键词的位置效应。较之单违例,语义-句法双违例诱发的N400与P600波幅变化呈非对称性。语义-句法双违例句诱发的P600波幅大于句法单违例句;语义-句法双违例引发的N400波幅均小于语义单违例句。这说明句法与语义加工之间存在交互作用,句法加工在很大程度上受到语义加工的影响,句法加工对语义加工的影响较小。     

汉语逆序词的加工─—词素在词加工中的作用

四个实验以汉语道序同为实验材料,采用语义启动范式,考察了词素在汉语双字词识别中的作用及其在时间进程上的变化。实验一发现,在ＳＯＡ为１５７毫秒时,逆序词的呈现不但能促进与之有联想关系的目标词（语义启动）的词汇判断时间,而且也能促进其逆序形式的语义联想词（逆序启动）的词汇判断时间,两种启动效应之间没有差异。实验二和实验三则发现在ＳＯＡ分别为３１４毫秒和５７毫秒时,逆序词的呈现只对其联想词的词汇判断有显著的促进作用,而对其逆序形式的联想词的促进作用不显著。实验四在更为严格的实验条件下支持了实验三的结果。研究结论为：１）同素单元的激活在词的识别中起一定作用,但并不是词的识别的必经阶段;２）在时间进程上,词素单元的激活先是由弱到强,然后逐渐减弱,而整词单元的激活为稳定的上升过程;３）词素的位置信息的加工落后于词素单元本身的加工,发生在词汇加工的晚期。     

情绪词类型效应：区分情绪标签词和情绪负载词的行为和神经活动证据

情绪标签词直接表达情绪状态, 而情绪负载词本身不表达情绪状态, 但能引发个体的情绪反应。通过对情绪标签词和情绪负载词的相关研究综述发现, 情绪标签词与情绪负载词的加工优势存在不一致的结果; 任务需求、语言类型和词汇特征是导致情绪词类型效应不一致的主要原因; 情绪标签词与情绪负载词的加工差异可以通过语义表征的具身假说、密度假说进行解释。未来研究应深入考察情绪标签词与情绪负载词加工差异的原因; 考察两种词在句子和语篇水平的加工差异; 提供能够直接解释情绪词类型效应的理论假说; 对比中英双语者加工中文和英文情绪标签词和情绪负载词的差异; 采用神经成像技术继续探查情绪信息与语义信息加工的神经机制。     

听觉呈现条件下汉语双字词语义和语音启动的ERP研究

在词汇决定实验中研究语义启动和语音启动,材料为通过听觉呈现的汉语双字词组成的词对(间隔600ms),记录行为数据和ERP数据,结果发现：(1)启动词与目标词之间的语义联系可显著改善对目标词的加工,表现为错误率降低、反应时缩短,以及N400波幅降低;(2)启动词与目标词之间的语音一致对目标词的加工既有干扰作用,又有促进作用。表现为错误率提高,但反应时趋向缩短,N400波幅亦呈下降趋势;(3)启动词与目标词首音相同比尾音相同有更大的干扰作用。     

WINDSOR: Windsor improved norms of distance and similarity of representations of semantics

Lexical co-occurrence models of semantic memory form representations of the meaning of a word on the basis of the number of times that pairs of words occur near one another in a large body of text. These models offer a distinct advantage over models that require the collection of a large number of judgments from human subjects, since the construction of the representations can be completely automated. Unfortunately, word frequency, a well-known predictor of reaction time in several cognitive tasks, has a strong effect on the co-occurrence counts in a corpus. Two words with high frequency are more likely to occur together purely by chance than are two words that occur very infrequently. In this article, we examine a modification of a successful method for constructing semantic representations from lexical co-occurrence. We show that our new method eliminates the influence of frequency, while still capturing the semantic characteristics of words.     

What causes the effect of age of acquisition in lexical processing?

Three hypotheses for effects of age of acquisition (AoA) in lexical processing are compared: the cumulative frequency hypothesis (frequency and AoA both influence the number of encounters with a word, which influences processing speed), the semantic hypothesis (early-acquired words are processed faster because they are more central in the semantic network), and the neural network model (early-acquired words are faster because they are acquired when a network has maximum plasticity). In a regression study of lexical decision (LD) and semantic categorization (SC) in Italian and Dutch, contrary to the cumulative frequency hypothesis, AoA coefficients were larger than frequency coefficients, and, contrary to the semantic hypothesis, the effect of AoA was not larger in SC than in LD. The neural network model was supported.     

What causes the effect of age of acquisition in lexical processing?

Three hypotheses for effects of age of acquisition (AoA) in lexical processing are compared: the cumulative frequency hypothesis (frequency and AoA both influence the number of encounters with a word, which influences processing speed), the semantic hypothesis (early-acquired words are processed faster because they are more central in the semantic network), and the neural network model (early-acquired words are faster because they are acquired when a network has maximum plasticity). In a regression study of lexical decision (LD) and semantic categorization (SC) in Italian and Dutch, contrary to the cumulative frequency hypothesis, AoA coefficients were larger than frequency coefficients, and, contrary to the semantic hypothesis, the effect of AoA was not larger in SC than in LD. The neural network model was supported.     

Better explanations of lexical and semantic cognition using networks derived from continued rather than single-word associations

In this article, we describe the most extensive set of word associations collected to date. The database contains over 12,000 cue words for which more than 70,000 participants generated three responses in a multiple-response free association task. The goal of this study was (1) to create a semantic network that covers a large part of the human lexicon, (2) to investigate the implications of a multiple-response procedure by deriving a weighted directed network, and (3) to show how measures of centrality and relatedness derived from this network predict both lexical access in a lexical decision task and semantic relatedness in similarity judgment tasks. First, our results show that the multiple-response procedure results in a more heterogeneous set of responses, which lead to better predictions of lexical access and semantic relatedness than do single-response procedures. Second, the directed nature of the network leads to a decomposition of centrality that primarily depends on the number of incoming links or in-degree of each node, rather than its set size or number of outgoing links. Both studies indicate that adequate representation formats and sufficiently rich data derived from word associations represent a valuable type of information in both lexical and semantic processing.     

语义距离半球效应的ERP研究

以通过视觉通路呈现的汉语双字词为实验材料,操纵启动词与目标词的语义距离。在词汇决定实验中记录ERP,发现：（1）除N300外,P240亦对语义距离敏感,它可能是一种与语义加工有关的新的ERP成分;（2）P240在头皮中央偏左的部位较早出现,但在头皮右侧波幅较大;（3）N300和P240都不存在语义距离的半球效应,该结果没有证实右脑更专擅远距离语义加工的假设,表明使用汉语与使用拼音文字的脑机制存在差异。     

新颖语义联结形成的右半球优势效应

新颖语义联结形成是创造性思维的重要加工过程。采用谜题型歇后语为材料,直接操控语义联结的新颖性,通过两个实验考察汉语新颖语义联结形成的神经机制。实验1采用fMRI记录谜题型歇后语阅读理解过程的神经活动,结果显示相对于寻常语义关联条件,新颖语义关联条件更强地激活了右侧颞上回,该脑区可能与新颖语义信息的激活有关。实验2采用ERP技术在语义关联性判断任务中考察新颖语义联结形成神经加工的时空特征,结果显示相对于寻常语义关联条件,新颖语义关联条件在右侧颞区和右侧额区诱发了更正的晚期正成分,可能分别反映了新颖语义信息的激活以及选择与整合。研究结果支持了新颖语义联结形成的右半球加工优势效应。     

Age-Specific Effects of Lexical–Semantic Networks on Word Production

The lexical–semantic organization of the mental lexicon is bound to change across the lifespan. Nevertheless, the effects of lexical–semantic factors on word processing are usually based on studies enrolling young adult cohorts. The current study aims to investigate to what extent age-specific semantic organization predicts performance in referential word production over the lifespan, from school-age children to older adults. In Study 1, we conducted a free semantic association task with participants from six age-groups (ranging from 10 to 80 years old) to compute measures that capture age-specific properties of the mental lexicon across the lifespan. These measures relate to lifespan changes in the Available Richness of the mental lexicon and in the lexical–semantic Network Prototypicality of concrete words. In Study 2, we used the collected data to predict performance in a picture-naming task on a new group of participants within the same age-groups as for Study 1. The results show that age-specific semantic Available Richness and Network Prototypicality affect word production speed while the semantic variables collected only in young adults do not. A richer and more prototypical semantic network across subjects from a given age-group is associated with faster word production speed. The current results indicate that age-specific semantic organization is crucial to predict lexical–semantic behaviors across the lifespan. Similarly, these results also provide cues to the understanding of the lexical–semantic properties of the mental lexicon and to lexical selection in referential tasks.     

Adding new information to semantic memory: how much learning is enough to produce automatic priming?

A series of experiments investigated the integration of new vocabulary words into semantic memory and the creation of new associations between preexisting, but previously unrelated, words. The ability of the newly learned vocabulary words and associations to facilitate lexical decisions when serving as primes under conditions associated with automatic processing was used to index integration. The results indicate that very extensive study is necessary for such integration to occur and that it is easier to add a new word to semantic memory than to establish a link between two formerly unconnected words already in semantic memory. The implications of these results for models of semantic memory and the episodic/semantic distinction are considered.     

Incidental formation of episodic associations: The importance of sentential context

The influence of relevant semantic context on the incidental formation of episodic associations between words was probed in two experiments. In Experiment 1, we examined the influence of associations formed incidentally between unrelated words presented either in isolation or embedded in a sentential context on subsequent explicit paired-associate leaning tested by cued recall. The results of Experiment 1 showed that the cued-recall rate of words studied in sentential context was higher than that of words co-occurring in isolated pairs. A subsequent single-items recognition test showed equal item memory for words studied in sentences than for words studied in isolated pairs, suggesting that the sentential context effect in cued recall indeed reflected stronger associations between paired words rather than better memory for single words. In Experiment 2, we ruled out memory for the entire sentence as an alternative explanation for the results of Experiment 1. We suggest two possible mechanisms to account for this advantage: First, pairs embedded in a sentence undergo semantic elaboration that might lead to the incidental formation of an association between them. Second, words embedded in a sentence enjoy the conjoint activation of compatible semantic features, a fact that may also facilitate the formation of an episodic association between them. The implications of these results for computational models using word representations based on co-occurrence data are discussed.     

Semantic boost on episodic associations: an empirically-based computational model

Words become associated following repeated co-occurrence episodes. This process might be further determined by the semantic characteristics of the words. The present study focused on how semantic and episodic factors interact in incidental formation of word associations. First, we found that human participants associate semantically related words more easily than unrelated words; this advantage increased linearly with repeated co-occurrence. Second, we developed a computational model, SEMANT, suggesting a possible mechanism for this semantic-episodic interaction. In SEMANT, episodic associations are implemented through lateral connections between nodes in a pre-existent self-organized map of word semantics. These connections are strengthened at each instance of concomitant activation, proportionally with the amount of the overlapping activity waves of activated nodes. In computer simulations SEMANT replicated the dynamics of associative learning in humans and led to testable predictions concerning normal associative learning as well as impaired learning in a diffuse semantic system like that characteristic of schizophrenia.