家庭社会经济地位对流动和城市学步儿社会适应的影响:母亲敏感性和依恋安全感的链式中介作用

该研究采用行为观察及编码的方式对81个家庭（39个流动家庭,42个城市家庭）的母亲敏感性和学步儿依恋安全性进行了评估,同时由母亲报告家庭社会经济地位相关的人口统计学信息和学步儿的社会适应程度,旨在探讨家庭社会经济地位与学步儿社会适应的关系,以及母亲敏感性和依恋关系在其中的作用。结果发现：（1）流动学步儿和城市学步儿在家庭养育环境和社会适应结果方面都存在明显差异,流动家庭比城市家庭的社会经济地位低,流动家庭母亲比城市家庭的母亲较不敏感,流动学步儿比城市学步儿的依恋关系更不安全,同时流动学步儿也表现出较差的社会适应能力和更多的外显行为问题以及失调问题;（2）家庭社会经济地位通过母亲敏感性和依恋关系影响学步儿社会适应的链式中间模型在城市学步儿中部分成立,在流动学步儿中不成立;即排除性别的作用后,来自高社会经济地位家庭中的城市母亲表现出的敏感性较高,与学步儿间的依恋关系越安全,这些城市学步儿的社会适应问题也较少;（3）在流动家庭中,无论家庭社会经济地位如何,敏感性较高的母亲与学步儿间的依恋关系越安全,这些流动学步儿的适应能力也越强。     

母亲鼓励自主与学步儿的探索行为:依恋的调节作用

探索行为是婴幼儿从外部环境获取信息、促进认知发展的重要方式和途径。本研究采用家庭半结构观察和实验室陌生情境技术考察66名14个月母婴对中母亲的鼓励自主水平、儿童依恋类型与学步儿探索行为的关系。结果发现:在控制家庭社会经济地位(SES)及儿童气质困难度后,(1)母亲鼓励自主显著正向预测探索操作总频次、探索操作种类、探索坚持性;(2)儿童依恋类型显著负向预测探索操作总频次,正向预测探索操作平均时长;(3)学步儿依恋类型可以显著地调节母亲鼓励自主对学步儿探索能力的作用,表现为母亲鼓励自主行为能显著正向预测安全型依恋学步儿的探索能力;当学步儿为不安全依恋时,母亲鼓励自主行为对婴儿探索能力的预测作用不显著。结论:母亲鼓励自主行为能够促进婴幼儿的探索行为,且儿童依恋安全性对这一影响具有一定的促进作用。     

父母儿童期情感虐待对学步儿问题行为影响机制的比较

以163个家庭为被试进行追踪研究，比较父亲和母亲童年期情感虐待经历对学步儿问题行为的影响及其内部机制的差异。在婴儿6个月（T1）时评估父母童年期情感虐待经历与成人依恋表征；14个月时父母分别报告消极共同养育关系；24个月（T3）时父母报告学步儿内外化问题行为。结果发现：(1)母亲儿童期的情感虐待与学步儿问题行为呈显著正相关，父亲儿童期的情感虐待与学步儿问题行为相关不显著。（2）母亲过度投入/未解决依恋表征与消极共同养育在母亲儿童期情感虐待与学步儿外化问题行为中的链式中介作用显著，而在学步儿内化问题行为中的链式中介不成立。父亲过度投入/未解决的依恋表征与消极共同养育在儿童期情感虐待与学步儿问题行为中的链式中介不成立。     

母亲积极养育行为对儿童顺从行为的早期预测与双向作用:从婴儿到学步儿

顺从是儿童早期重要的社会化成就。传统理论关注父母控制策略对顺从的作用,但实证结果表明其解释率有限;当前理论更加关注积极养育行为在顺从发展中具有发展适宜性的作用机制。本研究采用追踪设计考察了84个家庭从儿童6个月到3岁时母亲的敏感性和鼓励自主两种积极养育行为与学步儿顺从发展的关系。结果表明:(1)1岁前母亲敏感性对学步儿2岁时的合作性顺从有正向预测作用,对2岁到3岁合作性顺从的变化没有预测作用;(2)1岁前母亲敏感性对学步儿2岁时的情境性顺从和2岁到3岁的情境性顺从的变化均有负向预测作用;(3)在2岁到3岁期间,母亲的鼓励自主与学步儿的合作性顺从水平有双向正向预测作用,但与情境性顺从不存在双向预测关系。     

依恋对象回应方式对不同依恋类型幼儿支持提供预期修正的影响

依恋对象的敏感性回应是儿童安全依恋发展的重要前因。研究采用改编版依恋预期范式考察实时互动情境中依恋对象确定性和概率性回应对幼儿支持提供预期及预期修正的影响。结果发现：相对不安全型依恋幼儿,初始预期中安全型幼儿更多预期依恋对象会向依恋者提供支持;幼儿能够基于依恋对象的确定性和概率性回应一致地修正对该对象是否提供支持的预期。同时,低水平回应对幼儿预期修正的影响高于高水平回应。研究表明5岁左右幼儿能够基于实时互动中依恋对象的回应信息修正其对该依恋对象的预期,这对理解幼儿依恋表征的发展具有重要启示。     

学步儿母亲过度投入/未解决的依恋表征与控制行为：婚姻质量及儿童性别的调节作用

采用追踪设计,以北京市94名学步儿及其母亲为被试,系统考察学步儿期母亲过度投入/未解决的依恋表征对控制行为的影响,以及婚姻质量、儿童性别的调节作用。结果发现：(1)过度投入/未解决的依恋表征对3岁时的强制性控制具有显著的正向预测作用。(2)过度投入/未解决的依恋表征对3岁时温和控制及命令性控制的影响受到婚姻质量的调节。(3)婚姻质量及儿童性别共同调节过度投入/未解决的依恋表征与3岁强制性控制之间的关系。     

母亲敏感性与婴儿气质、注意对学步儿执行功能影响的交互作用：一项两年的追踪研究

为同时探究外部因素与内部因素对学步儿执行功能的影响, 对163对母婴进行追踪测量。婴儿6个月时根据母婴自由互动录像编码母亲敏感性; 使用最长注视时长范式测量婴儿注意特征; 使用母亲报告的《婴儿行为问卷—修订短版》测量婴儿气质; 24个月时使用多位置寻找任务、形状Stroop任务、逆转分类任务、延迟满足任务测量学步儿执行功能。结果发现：(1)婴儿6个月最长注视时长能够显著正向预测24个月的多位置寻找与延迟满足任务得分。(2)母亲敏感性能够正向预测气质外向性低的婴儿24个月时的逆转分类任务表现, 对气质外向性高的婴儿24个月时的逆转分类任务表现的预测不显著。(3)母亲敏感性能够正向预测最长注视时长更长的婴儿24个月时的形状Stroop任务得分; 负向预测最长注视时长更短的婴儿24个月时的形状Stroop任务得分。研究发现了针对不同特征的婴儿, 母亲的养育敏感性对学步儿执行功能影响的差异, 这对早期教育应该如何“因材施教”有所启示。     

母亲的依恋风格影响对婴儿敏感性的认知过程

母亲敏感性对孩子的发育发展至关重要。尽管以往诸多研究已发现依恋风格会对母亲敏感性产生影响,但这些研究很大程度上忽视了依恋风格与母亲敏感性认知过程的关系,因此现有研究无法回答依恋风格为何会对母亲敏感性产生影响。母亲敏感性的社会信息加工模型整合了与母亲敏感性有关的关键认知结构和认知过程,并将其认知过程分为4个阶段。基于该模型,我们回顾了依恋风格在情感感知、母亲归因、动机反应和反应选择4个阶段的个体差异及作用机制。未来研究应从时间维度深化依恋风格对母亲敏感性认知过程的影响;应拓展母亲敏感性的多种认知结构对其认知过程的共同影响;应关注情境因素在依恋风格与母亲敏感性认知过程中的作用。此外,还应进一步探讨依恋风格对母亲敏感性情绪过程和认知过程的双重影响。     

2岁儿童社会性行为发展及其与家庭因素的关系研究

采用陌生情境法等实验方法对52名2岁儿童社会性行为进行研究,同时对其父母用问卷了解儿童问题行为和各种家庭因素资料。研究结果显示我国2岁儿童：（1）安全型依恋比例较高,A型依恋无回避行为;（2）抗挫折和抗诱惑行为较差;（3）安全型依恋问题行为较少,非安全型依恋问题行为较多;（4）各行为间有显著相关;（5）儿童社会性行为与家庭背景、夫妻关系无显著相关,与家庭氛围,亲子关系及父母教养观念有显著相关。     

个体依恋特征的二重性：特质性依恋与状态性依恋

传统依恋理论认为个体依恋心理和行为模式具有相对稳定性, 但无论在信息加工还是个体发展过程中, 个体依恋模式均表现出二重性, 即既具有相对稳定性, 又具有情境敏感性。个体在情境中所表现出的依恋模式是个体相对稳定的特质性依恋和情境特征相互作用的结果。依恋启动研究中特质性依恋特征与依恋启动效应之间的交互作用模式为理解依恋二重特征及其关系提供了窗口。依恋系统激活的两阶段模型为整合和解释这些相互作用模式提供了框架。未来研究应优化依恋二重特征关系研究中启动效应的操作检验, 考虑依恋焦虑和回避维度的交互作用, 关注高焦虑群体内的依恋差异, 以理析依恋二重特征之间的相互作用方式, 同时关注依恋策略影响依恋启动效应的时间进程, 探究依恋二重特征相互作用的机制。     

At the intersection of social and cognitive development: internal working models of attachment in infancy

Three visual habituation studies using abstract animations tested the claim that infants' attachment behavior in the Strange Situation procedure corresponds to their expectations about caregiver-infant interactions. Three unique patterns of expectations were revealed. Securely attached infants expected infants to seek comfort from caregivers and expected caregivers to provide comfort. Insecure-resistant infants not only expected infants to seek comfort from caregivers but also expected caregivers to withhold comfort. Insecure-avoidant infants expected infants to avoid seeking comfort from caregivers and expected caregivers to withhold comfort. These data support Bowlby's (1958) original claims-that infants form internal working models of attachment that are expressed in infants' own behavior.     

Maternal sensory sensitivity, mother-infant 9-month interaction, infant attachment status: predictors of mother-toddler interaction at 24 months

At 24-months of age, toddlers (N=62) and their mothers were observed in a free-play session to determine the contribution of (a) maternal sensory sensitivity to positive and negative infant facial expressions as measured in a signal detection task at 6 months, (b) maternal behavior and affect, infant behavior and affect, and dyadic interaction at 9 months, and (c) infant attachment status at 12 months in predicting maternal, toddler, and dyadic measures at 24 months. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that over and above early maternal behavior, which was predictive of later maternal behavior at 24 months, sensory sensitivity to the positive infant expression at 6 months predicted maternal behavior at 24 months and sensory sensitivity to both the positive and negative expression was associated with later maternal affect. Infant attachment status emerged as the variable which predicted toddler behavior and dyadic interaction at 24 months.     

Attachment concerns of mothers as manifested in parental,spousal, and friendship relationships

The present study examined the relation between attachment concerns of mothers and three of their close relationships: with their husband, best woman friend, and infant. Forty-live mothers completed an Attachment Concerns Questionnaire based on the Hazan and Shaver attachment measure, and the Sharabany Intimacy scale regarding their relationships with their husband and with their same-sex best friend; they were also observed with their infants (aged 14 to 22 months) in the Ainsworth Strange Situation procedure. Mothers’attachment concerns were significantly correlated both to their infants’attachment classifications and to reunion scores in the Strange Situation procedure (e.g., concern with closeness was positively correlated with avoidance; fear of abandonment was positively correlated with avoidance and resistance). Intimacy with husband and best woman friend were also correlated with mothers’attachment concerns (e.g., concern with closeness was negatively correlated with intimacy with the husband and fear of abandonment was negatively correlated with intimacy with the best friend). The findings are discussed in terms of the concept of an internal working model of attachment, and, in light of the similarity and the modular hypotheses regarding the nature of relationships and concordance among relationships.     

Child and family correlates of toddlers' emotional and behavioral responses to a mishap

This study evaluated the unique and joint contributions of internal state language, externalizing behavior, and maternal talk about emotions to the prediction of toddlers' empathy‐related responsiveness. The empathy‐based guilt reactions of 47 toddlers (27 boys) were observed in response to distress that they thought they had caused. In addition, mothers reported on the children's internal state language, externalizing behavior, and empathy‐based guilt. In a separate observation, the mothers discussed emotional expressions with their children, and the functional significance of their emotional discourse was considered. Results revealed that toddlers' internal state language ability was positively related to their attempts to comprehend another's affective state and to maternal reports of children's sympathy reactions. There was also an unexpected inverse relation between externalizing behavior and arousal level. In terms of the parent measures, maternal explanations of emotions were positively related to children's attempts to comprehend another's affective state, whereas mothers' directives for children to label emotions were positively related to children's expressed emotional concern for others. The implications of these findings for understanding empathy and guilt development in young children are discussed. ©2003 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

Possible Insomnia Predicts Some Risky Behaviors Among Adolescents When Controlling for Depressive Symptoms

Attachment theory asserts that secure attachment representations are developed through sensitive and consistent caregiving. If sensitive caregiving is a constant characteristic of the parent, then siblings should have concordant attachment classifications. The authors explored maternal attachment quality assessed by the Attachment Q-Set, maternal sensitivity, and specific mother–child interactions between siblings. Hour-long observations took place in the homes of 9 preschool sibling pairs and their immediate caregivers. The interactions were analyzed using a modified version of Bales’ Small Group Analysis. The results reveal attachment discordance in a third of sibling pairs. While maternal sensitivity was higher with older siblings and mothers displayed more positive emotions when interacting with their younger siblings, attachment quality was not associated with birth order. Therefore, a shift toward a more contextual, family-based perspective of attachment is recommended to further understand how attachment strategies are created and maintained within the child's everyday context.     

Exposure to child care,parenting style and attachment security

The present study addressed whether security of attachment is differentiated by quality of parenting and quantity of exposure to child care. Sixty mothers participated with their 14‐month‐old infants, who by the age of 12‐months had received either exclusive maternal care, or varying degrees of exposure to child care. Levels of attachment security were assessed through maternal completion of the Attachment Q‐Set(AQS); parenting quality was assessed through observations of mother–infant interactions during structured tasks. The scores that less sensitive mothers assign their toddlers is higher when their children are in child care for more hours per week; whereas the scores that more sensitive mothers assign their toddlers is lower when their children are in child care for more hours per week. These contrasting patterns suggest that the effects of parenting style on attachment security are moderated by quantity of exposure to child care. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

TOP‐DOWN AND BOTTOM‐UP: THE ROLE OF SOCIAL INFORMATION PROCESSING AND MINDFULNESS AS PREDICTORS IN MATERNAL–INFANT INTERACTION

The cross‐generational transmission of attachment appears to reflect a complex interplay of factors, which have been challenging to identify. The current longitudinal study explored the maternal cognitive model of relationships through language use, maternal mindfulness, and attachment style assessed prenatally, as predictors of maternal response to distress and infant behavior at 6 months’ postpartum. Infant behavior to the mother also was examined to provide an understanding of the evolving relationship. Thirty‐two females were interviewed prenatally regarding social and family experiences. At 6 months’ postpartum, each mother participated in a video‐recorded session where she was asked to teach her infant a developmentally appropriate task. Videos were analyzed using the NCAST Teaching Protocol. Language use prenatally as well as the mindfulness facets (acting with awareness and describing) predicted the mothers’ ability to respond to infant distress, indicating greater attunement. Infant's response to mother and clarity of cues also were predicted by maternal pronoun use. The study highlights the role of internal working models reflective of interpersonal beliefs, cognitive models, and current‐moment awareness in maternal behavior. The effect of maternal language on infant behavior arguably indicates the infant's integration of maternal internal working models.     

Mothers' insightfulness regarding their infants' internal experience: relations with maternal sensitivity and infant attachment

This study examined the associations among mothers' insightfulness into their infants' internal experience, mothers' sensitivity to their infants' signals, and infants' security of attachment to their mothers. The insightfulness of 129 mothers of 12-month-old infants was assessed by showing mothers 3 videotaped segments of observations of their infants and themselves and interviewing them regarding their infants' and their own thoughts and feelings. Interviews were classified into 1 insightful and 3 noninsightful categories. Mothers' sensitivity was assessed during play sessions at home and at the laboratory, and infant-mother attachment was assessed with the Strange Situation. Mothers classified as positively insightful were rated as more sensitive and were more likely to have securely attached children than were mothers not classified as positively insightful. Insightfulness also accounted for variance in attachment beyond the variance explained by maternal sensitivity. These findings add an important dimension to research on caregiving, suggesting that mothers' seeking of explanations for the motives underlying their infants' behavior is related to both maternal sensitivity and infant attachment.     

Maternal career-orientation as related to parental identification in college women

The relation of identification preferences in college women to maternal work history and maternal career attitudes was examined, using direct, forced-choice questions concerning perceived similarity and desire to emulate (“pattern preference”) the mother or the father. It was expected that mothers who participated in work and desired a career would be more attractive models, compared to the father, than mothers who were not career-oriented. These expectations were based upon the assumption that role status, power, and satisfaction, which are important in identification motivation, are generally greater in working mothers. Findings tended to support this argument and were interpreted with the aid of subjects' explanations of their identification choices.