Reflections on Past Behavior: A Self‐Report Index of Habit Strength1

We argue that habit is a psychological construct, rather than simply past behavioral frequency. In 4 studies, a 12‐item index of habit strength (the Self‐Report Habit Index, SRHI) was developed on the basis of features of habit; that is, a history of repetition, automaticity (lack of control and awareness, efficiency), and expressing identity. High internal and test‐retest reliabilities were found. The SRHI correlated strongly with past behavioral frequency and the response frequency measure of habit (Verplanken, Aarts, van Knippenberg, & van Knippenberg, 1994). The index discriminated between behaviors varying in frequency, and also between daily vs. weekly habits. The SRHI may be useful as a dependent variable, or to determine or monitor habit strength without measuring behavioral frequency.     

Behavioral Treatment of Self-Choking in a Developmentally Normal Child

ABSTRACT

In the past, self-choking behavior has been associated with individuals who were either developmentally disabled or experienced psychosis symptoms, and has usually been treated with aversive procedures. A time-series design using several different non-aversive behavioral procedures was used to analyze these treatment effects on an 11-year-old girl whose habit of self-choking interfered with normal functioning. Habit reversal procedures, which implement an incompatible response in place of the target behavior, did not, as first hypothesized, have a positive effect on self-choking behavior. However, attention from a male therapist as a positive reinforcer initially decreased the frequency of self-chokes and percent of time spent self-choking. Attention contingent on performance was not as effective on the child's behavior as attention administered noncontingently. Overall, the behavioral treatment approach applied here does not appear to reduce the target behavior in a clinically significant manner. Implications for future treatment approaches for this behavior are discussed.     

From intentions via planning and behavior to physical exercise habits

ObjectivesIndividuals who enact a health behavior effortlessly with minimal conscious deliberation can be assumed to have formed a healthy habit. This can be reflected by increases in self-reported habit strength of a behavior. We examined whether physical exercise intentions facilitate changes in exercise habit strength by increasing the use of action planning and exercise.DesignTwo field studies investigated the effect of behavioral intentions on changes in habit strength through a sequential path from action planning to exercise.MethodExercise intentions, action planning, habit strength, and exercise were assessed at two measurement points in time in 231 university students (Study 1), and at four points in time in 134 rehabilitation patients (Study 2).ResultsIn multiple-step mediation models in both samples, there were indirect effects of intentions on habit strength through action planning and behavior.ConclusionAction planning and behavior operated as sequential mediators to bridge the gap between intentions and habit strength. Exercise habit strength may increase as a result of conscious action planning and frequent behavior enactment. Including these constructs jointly into behavior change models may improve the understanding of the mechanisms involved in behavior maintenance.     

Habit as mediator of the relationship between prior and later physical activity: A longitudinal study in older adults

ObjectivesHabit has been proposed as an explanation of why prior behavior is a good predictor of later behavior. This study examined whether habit mediates the relationship between prior and later physical activity (PA), within the framework of the attitude-social influences-efficacy (ASE) model and the theory of planned behavior (TPB).DesignA longitudinal design was used.MethodsA total of 1976 older adults completed questionnaires on ASE/TPB constructs and PA at baseline, intention at three months, habit at six months, and PA at twelve months.ResultsPath analyses showed that habit significantly mediates the relationship between prior and later PA, after ASE/TPB variables were taken into account.ConclusionsHabit is a partial solution to the question why prior PA is a good predictor of later PA. It is recommended to incorporate habit into the ASE/TPB model.     

Eat now,exercise later: The relation between consideration of immediate and future consequences and healthy behavior

In light of the current obesity epidemic, individual choices for food and exercise should be understood better. Consideration of the immediate and future consequences of these choices (i.e., time orientation) can be an important predictor of eating and exercising behavior. The objective was to show that behavior-specific time orientation differentially predicts eating and exercising behavior. Two studies were conducted among students (N = 55) and the general public (N = 165). Participants completed two adapted versions (for food and exercise) of the Consideration of Future Consequences Scale (CFC), each consisting of the subscales CFC-future and CFC-immediate. Thereafter they reported their eating and exercising behavior. Study 1 showed that CFC-food, but not CFC-exercise, predicted eating behavior. Similarly, both studies showed that CFC-exercise, but not CFC-food, predicted exercising behavior. Moreover, eating behavior was predicted by CFC-food/immediate, whereas exercising behavior was predicted by CFC-exercise/future. In conclusion, behavior-specific time orientation predicts behavior within a behavioral domain but less well across behavioral domains. Additionally, consideration of immediate and future consequences differentially predict behavior across behavioral domains. In order to predict behavior, time orientation is measured best at a behavior-specific level.     

‘Sticking to a healthy diet is easier for me when I exercise regularly’: Cognitive transfer between physical exercise and healthy nutrition

Objective: Long-term rehabilitation success depends on regular exercise and healthy nutrition. The present study introduces a new framework to explain this association on a psychosocial level. The exercise–nutrition relationship was investigated by exploring the sequential mediation of habit strength and transfer cognitions.

Design: Analyses were performed at two measurement points in time (at 12 and 18?months after rehabilitation), involving 470 medical rehabilitation patients who participated in an exercise intervention.

Main outcome measures: Patients filled in paper-pencil questionnaires assessing exercise (t1) and habit strength, transfer cognitions and healthy nutrition at follow-up (t2).

Results: Habit strength and transfer cognitions mediated the relationship between exercise and nutrition.

Conclusion: Findings suggest that habit strength and transfer cognitions are important factors underlying the relationship between exercise and nutrition.     

Health behaviour change theory meets falls prevention: Feasibility of a habit-based balance and strength exercise intervention for older adults

ObjectivesHabit formation is a proposed mechanism for behaviour maintenance. Very few falls prevention studies have adopted this as an intervention framework and outcome. Therefore, we tested feasibility of a theory-based behaviour change intervention that encouraged women to embed balance and strength exercises into daily life routines (e.g., eating, self-care routines).DesignThe EASY LiFE study was a mixed-methods, 4-month feasibility intervention that included seven group-based sessions and two telephone calls.Main outcome measuresWe obtained performance-based (i.e., Short-Physical-Performance-Battery) and psychological self-report measures (i.e., intention, self-efficacy, planning, action control, habit strength, quality of life) from 13 women at baseline (T1) and 4-month follow-up (T2). We applied the Framework-Method to post-intervention, semi-structured interviews to evaluate program content and delivery.ResultsIn total, 10 of 13 women completed the program (M_age = 66.23, SD = 3.98) and showed changes in their level of action control [mean difference_T1−T2 = 1.7, 95% CI (−2.2 to −0.8)], action planning [mean difference_T1−T2 = 0.8, 95% CI (−1.1 to −0.2)], automaticity [mean difference_T1−T2 = 2.5, 95% CI (−3.7 to −1.2)], and exercise identity [mean difference_T1−T2 = 2.0, 95% CI (−3.2 to −0.8)]. Based on the Theoretical Domains Framework we identified knowledge, behavioural regulation, and social factors as important themes. For program delivery, dominant themes were engagement, session facilitators and group format.ConclusionThe theory-based framework showed feasibility for promoting lifestyle integrated balance and strength exercise habits. Using activity and object-based cues may be particularly effective in generating action and automaticity.     

The links between self-determined motivations and behavioral automaticity in a variety of real-life behaviors

The different motivations postulated by the Self-Determination Theory have proved to be meaningful to predict the level of engagement in a wide variety of life domains. The present research examines the relation between the different forms of self-determined motivation and behavioral automaticity of 12 behaviors associated with different life domains. Following 1743 measurements of self-determination (using a short version of the situational motivational scale, SIMS8), behavioral automaticity (using the self-reported behavioral automaticity index, SRBAI), and behavioral frequency (self-reported number of executions in a unit of time) for 12 various common behaviors collected on 315 young adults (M_age = 20.60?±?2.87 years) through an online survey, the results of crossed linear mixed models indicated that self-determined motivations are more associated with behavioral automaticity than non-self-determined motivations (intrinsic motivation: β?=?0.13, p?<?.001, identified extrinsic motivation: β?=?0.13, p?<?.001; external extrinsic motivation : β?=?0.08, p?<?.001; amotivation: β?=?0.02, p?=?.433). Furthermore, self-determination played a moderating role between the repetition of behaviors and behavioral automaticity (β?=?0.06, p?<?.002) suggesting that self-determination facilitated automatization, as high level of behavioral automaticity was achieved with less frequent behaviors when behaviors were performed for highly self-determined (β?=?0.41, p?<?.001) than weakly self-determined reasons (β?=?0.29, p?<?.001). The applications of these findings for learning and habit formation are discussed.     

习惯研究的现状与展望

习惯是一种由某特定线索引发并指向某特定目标(包括外显目标与内隐目标)的自动化反应。它具有过去有行为的重复、环境线索的稳定与自动化的反应等特征。关于习惯的测量方式主要采取自我报告法（如自我报告过去行为频率、自我报告习惯频率、自我报告习惯索引等）和反应频率测量法。对习惯的形成的理论解释主要有环境促进、态度促进、目标促进等几种观点。未来研究应继续深入探讨习惯的本质、整合形成机制的相关理论及开发更可靠方便的测量工具。     

Challenging assumptions about habit: A response to Hagger (2019)

Widely cited literature assumes habits to be: (1) specific and rigid behavioral responses; (2) in response to location- and timing-stable, external contexts, (3) goal-independent, and (4) enacted without conscious awareness. Hagger (2019) recently reviewed this literature as it applies to the physical activity domain. The purpose of this article is to challenge these assumptions in favor of a habit conceptualization that is more applicable to physical activity: (1) behavioral instigation and/or execution can be habitual, allowing for variable responses to cues; (2) stable contexts can be internal or functional (cued by a preceding action) but may vary in timing and physical location; (3) a shift from external to internal goal dependence may characterize habit development; and (4) types of automaticity other than purely nonconscious enactment may characterize habitual action. I present theory and research that supports these alternative characterizations and discuss their ramifications for physical activity adoption and maintenance via habit.     

The theory of planned behaviour and breast self-examination: Assessing the impact of past behaviour,context stability and habit strength

This study applied the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to the prediction of breast self-examination (BSE) intentions and behaviour, and tested whether the frequency of past behaviour and context stability moderates intention–behaviour and habit–behaviour relations. Seventy-seven females completed measures of the TPB, frequency of past behaviour, context stability and habit strength (Self-Report Habit Index). BSE behaviour was assessed at 1-month follow-up (n?=?66). The TPB explained 33% of the variance in BSE intentions and 11% of the variance in time 2 BSE. The frequency of past behaviour moderated the intention–behaviour relationship such that the intention was only positively related to time 2 BSE behaviour when the frequency of past behaviour was low. Context stability and the combination of the frequency of past behaviour?×?context stability moderated the habit–behaviour relationship such that habit strength was only positively related to time 2 BSE behaviour when context stability and the combination of frequency of past behaviour?×?context stability were high. The results are consistent with the proposal that behaviours that are performed frequently in stable contexts are predominantly under the control of habitual processes, whereas behaviours that are performed infrequently in unstable contexts are predominantly under the control of intentional processes.     

A test of the impact of pain on automatic motivational processes in people with knee osteoarthritis

ObjectivePeople with osteoarthritis are likely to be physically inactive and current socio-cognitive approaches to changing physical activity in this patient population are generally ineffective. We assessed prospective associations between physical activity and the automatic processes of habit automaticity, automatic evaluations, and automatic self-schema in people with knee osteoarthritis.DesignOne-week prospective.Method253 adults (aged 46–82 years, 72% female, 28% male) with knee osteoarthritis self-reported their physical activity behaviour of the past week, habit automaticity for physical activity and completed two implicit association tests to assess automatic evaluations of physical activity (relative to sedentary behaviour) and automatic self-schema for physical activity. One week later, participants self-reported physical activity and pain while walking over the prior week. Linear regression models assessed associations of each automatic process with subsequent physical activity and the moderation effect of pain and each automatic process on subsequent physical activity, controlling for covariates.ResultsWe did not find evidence of a statistical relationship between physical activity with automatic evaluations, automatic self-schema, or habit automaticity. The inclusion of pain while walking did not moderate the relationship between any automatic process and physical activity.ConclusionAlthough previous research on healthy, young adults suggests that automatic processes affect physical activity behaviour, we did not find evidence to confirm whether a similar relationship exists for older adults with knee osteoarthritis. Replication and extension work testing these research questions is needed to ensure the findings are not a result of measurement and design features of the study.     

Experimental test of a planning intervention for forming a ‘higher order’ health-habit

Abstract

Objective: Habit-formation interventions may help individuals initiate and maintain behaviour change. This paper proposes and empirically tests the idea that it is possible for individuals to form ‘higher-order habits’, or behaviours that can be executed in more than one way, and still be habitual.

Design: Participants (N?=?82) were healthy adults randomly assigned to an action-and-coping-planning intervention for forming a ‘higher-order habit’ of filling half of their dinner plates with fruits and vegetables or a control condition. Key measures were collected at baseline and 1, 2 and 3 weeks post-baseline. Participants submitted 3 pictures per week of their dinner plates via snapchat/email.

Main Outcome Measures: Intrinsic motivation, habit strength and behavioural frequency for filling half their dinner plates with fruits and vegetables.

Results: Intervention participants reported significantly greater habit strength at each follow-up time point. Controls did show some degree of habit formation, despite not fully forming a habit. Behavioural automaticity increased despite consuming a variety of fruits/vegetables; results did not depend on participants’ intrinsic motivation to consume fruits/vegetables.

Conclusion: It may be possible for individuals to form ‘higher-order’ habits, which may be particularly important in health contexts, in which many target behaviours are complex and can be seen as higher-order.     

Are action planning and physical activity mediators of the intention-habit relationship?

ObjectivesPhysical activity is associated with many health benefits that are important for older adults. These health benefits can only be obtained and preserved when physical activity is maintained over a long period of time. Habit formation has been proposed as a way to ensure long-term maintenance of physical activity. Intention, action planning, and physical activity are suggested to be determinants of physical activity habits. However, how they determine physical activity habits in older adults is largely unknown. This study examined whether the relationship between intention and habit is mediated by action planning and/or physical activity.DesignA four-wave prospective design was used.MethodsTwo independent studies were conducted in 469 (Study 1; M_age = 63.07, SD_age = 7.61) and 322 (Study 2; M_age = 64.31, SD_age = 9.39) older adults. Study 2 was conducted with the aim of replicating findings of Study 1. In both studies the older adults completed questionnaires on intention, physical activity, and habit at baseline, action planning at three months, physical activity at six months, and habit at twelve months.ResultsStructural equation modeling analyses showed significant intention-physical activity-habit paths, nonsignificant intention-action planning-habit paths, and nonsignificant intention-action planning-physical activity-habit paths in both studies.ConclusionsThe relationship between physical activity habit and intention was mediated by physical activity. Intention was neither associated with habit via action planning as a single mediator, nor via action planning and physical activity as sequential mediators. Possible conditions under which intention-action planning-habit paths and intention-action planning-physical activity-habit paths exist are discussed.     

Does the level of physical exercise affect physiological and psychological responses to psychosocial stress in women?

ObjectivesTo test the Cross-Stressor Adaptation hypothesis for females by examining whether physically exercising young women show reduced physiological and psychological stress responses to a psychosocial stressor.DesignForty-seven healthy young women with different levels of physical exercise (17 not or rarely exercising, 15 moderately exercising, 15 vigorously exercising) underwent the Trier Social Stress Test for Groups (TSST-G); physiological and psychological stress responses during and after stress induction were compared.MethodANOVAs with repeated measures were used to compare stress reactivity and recovery between the three exercise groups. Heart rate and salivary free cortisol were used as indicators of physiological stress response, state anxiety, mood, and calmness as indicators of psychological stress response. For physiological stress reactivity, the areas under the curve with respect to the ground (AUC_G) were compared.ResultsIn all three exercise groups, experimentally induced stress led to a significant rise in heart rate, cortisol, and state anxiety; mood and calmness significantly decreased. As hypothesized, the pattern of the physiological stress response differed for the three exercise groups, with lowered reactivity in the more active groups. However, the psychological stress response partly went in the opposite direction: Exercising participants reported a higher mood decrease, suggesting a dissociation of the physiological and psychological stress responses.ConclusionsThe findings suggest that the Cross-Stressor Adaptation hypothesis is also valid for young women; however, only with regard to physiological stress response. The unexpected findings for psychological stress response need to be further explored in experimental studies.     

Ethnicity and the theory of planned behavior in an exercise context: A mediation and moderation perspective

ObjectivesMost college students fail to meet recommended exercise levels and ethnic disparities in participation are apparent. The present study examined the moderating and mediating relationships among ethnicity, the theory of planned behavior (TPB), and exercise, and identified common and ethnic-specific beliefs related to exercise.MethodCollege students completed a baseline TPB questionnaire and an exercise assessment at either two-week (n=237 blacks; n=176 whites) or two-month (n=280 blacks; n=273 whites) follow-ups.DesignOne week and two month longitudinal designs.ResultsStructural equation modeling showed that the TPB was invariant by ethnicity in both samples with affective attitudes and perceived behavioral control being significant predictors of intention, which in turn, significantly predicted exercise. Furthermore, analyses showed that the TPB had a small mediating effect on the ethnicity/exercise relationship in both samples. Finally, common and ethnic-specific beliefs were identified that varied by sample.ConclusionThe TPB is a useful framework to explain exercise behavior in black and white students; however, its ability to explain the ethnic disparity in exercise may be limited.     

Exercise attitudes and behaviours among retired female collegiate athletes

ObjectivesThe present study explored exercise attitudes and behaviours among retired female collegiate athletes.DesignA survey design incorporating both closed and open-ended questions was adopted.MethodA total of 218 former NCAA Division I female athletes (n = 144 gymnastics; n = 74 swimming/diving) provided details on their current exercise behaviours and their thoughts regarding exercise since retiring from collegiate sport.ResultsNo relations were found between years since retirement and athletes’ current exercise frequency, types of exercise activities, and reasons for exercising. Despite reporting activity levels consistent with recommendations (5 days/week, 1 h per session), retired athletes remained dissatisfied with their activity levels and struggled to integrate exercise alongside occupational, academic and social demands.ConclusionsAthletes may require support in adapting to an independent and less intense exercise regime on retirement. Future research may look to explore exercise attitudes and behaviours among retired athletes from a longitudinal perspective.     

Integrating five-factor model facet-level traits with the theory of planned behavior and exercise

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine direct, indirect, and moderating links between facet-level personality traits of the five-factor model, the theory of planned behavior (TPB) constructs [Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211.], and exercise behavior.DesignCross-sectional.MethodUniversity students (N = 507) completed the NEO-PI-R [Costa, P. T., McCrae, R. R. (1992). The NEO-PI-R personality inventory: Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.], the Leisure-time Exercise Questionnaire [Godin, G., Shephard, R. J. (1985). A simple method to assess exercise behavior in the community. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Science, 10, 141–146.], and measures assessing the TPB constructs.ResultsPreliminary analysis revealed the extraversion and conscientiousness facet-level traits of activity and self-discipline respectively were independent predictors of exercise behavior. An integrated structural model with both facet-level traits revealed that 46% of the variance in exercise behavior and 70% of the variance in intention was explained. Significant indirect effects of activity and self-discipline and the TPB constructs of affective attitude, instrumental attitude, and subjective norm, on exercise behavior through intention and perceived behavioral control were also observed. Finally, the anxiety facet trait of neuroticism significantly moderated the intention–behavior relationship.ConclusionsOur findings showed that the facet-level personality traits of activity and self-discipline are important motivational variables that link the TPB constructs to exercise behavior. Future research that integrates personality with the TPB within experimental interventions is warranted.     

Validation of physical activity habit strength with subjective and objective criterion measures

ObjectivesA German version of the Self-reported Habit Strength Index (SRHI) for both sports and everyday physical activity (PA) was validated against subjective and objective criterion measures of PA.Design and methodData were obtained from 260 participants (21.4% women) in study 1 and 86 participants (58.1% women) in study 2. Both studies assessed habit strength for PA (sports and everyday PA) by the SRHI and PA by the Baecke Questionnaire (Sport, Leisure and Work Index) as subjective criterion measure, as well as by accelerometry (Step Activity Monitor or GTM1 Actigraph) as objective criterion measure. Bivariate correlations as well as path analyses were computed for the associations between the SRHI scores and subjective and objective criterion measures of PA.ResultsHighest associations for subjective criterion measure were found for habit strength for sports and the Sport Index in both studies. The Leisure Index was predicted by habit strength for sports and everyday PA. For objective criterion measures, habit strength for sports was most significantly associated with total PA in study 1 and moderate intense PA in study 2. Habit strength for everyday PA was a significant predictor of moderate intense and total PA in study 1 and low intense PA in study 2.ConclusionThe present studies replicated high internal consistencies of the SRHI for sports and everyday PA and could partially confirm their validity with subjective and objective criterion measures. The SRHI for sports seems to be more robust than the SRHI for everyday physical activity.     

Achieving Higher Seat Belt Usage: The Role of Habit in Bridging the Attitude-Behavior Gap1

The Triandis (1977, 1980) model of habit is applied in an investigation of attitude-behavior discrepancy for seat belt use behavior. Habit is conceptualized as automated response, and the measure employed here is shown to be discriminated from measures of intentions and behavior. A case is also made for a distinction between pro-intentional and counter-intentional habits. Data from a random sample of 197 adult respondents show that the two habits (a) are distinct; (b) operate differently, that is, use habit has a main effect whereas nonuse habit interacts with attitude/intentions; and (c) explain belt use behavior nonredundantly with intention and attitude (e.g., their addition to attitude raises R² from 38.8% to 62.9%). Theoretical implications for understanding habit processes and programmatic directions for increasing the belt usage are discussed.