工作记忆刷新功能的可塑性

从工作记忆刷新功能的训练入手, 以不同人群为研究对象, 采用活动记忆任务, 从行为层面和认知神经层面探讨工作记忆刷新功能的可塑性。结果发现, 工作记忆刷新功能具有可塑性。具体表现为, 通过刷新功能训练, 个体在工作记忆刷新任务上的成绩提高。工作记忆刷新功能训练使得个体对刺激的识别能力增强, 对无关信息的抑制能力提高, 进而促使工作记忆中的更新能力得到提升。通过工作记忆刷新训练可以提高个体其它认知功能, 但是, 相对于认知能力稳定以及衰退的个体, 这种迁移效应在工作记忆能力发展个体中的表现更为明显。     

工作记忆训练:一个很有价值的研究方向

采用不同的训练方法对不同人群的工作记忆进行训练的研究发现,工作记忆能力可以通过训练提高。通过工作记忆训练,个体的阅读能力、智力水平等得到提升。工作记忆的训练还可以改变人类大脑的活动,而且对于特殊儿童临床症状的缓解有一定的作用。工作记忆训练的研究对原有的认知理论以及相关理论模型提出了挑战,为工作记忆训练运用于教育、临床治疗等领域提供了实证支持,也为理解工作记忆开辟了新的方向。未来的研究应致力于改进训练内容、完善训练形式与指标、探索一套与工作记忆缺陷个体临床治疗相结合的工作记忆训练系统。     

工作记忆训练对认知功能和大脑神经系统的影响

工作记忆训练成为近年来提升个体认知绩效的一种有效方式。工作记忆训练主要是指采用工作记忆广度任务、刷新任务以及各种复杂工作记忆任务在计算机上以循序渐进的方式进行训练。近年来的研究发现, 工作记忆训练能提升工作记忆、流体智力、抑制、注意、阅读和数学等认知功能。神经机制的研究发现：工作记忆训练引起大脑额-顶区域激活减弱, 而皮层下结构包括纹状体和尾状核区域的激活增强; 工作记忆训练减少了大脑灰质的数量, 增强了大脑白质的功能连通性; 工作记忆训练引起尾状核上多巴胺受体的变化。未来的研究需要在研究设计、被试人群、研究手段上进一步确认和扩展工作记忆训练的有效性和内在认知神经机制。     

策略的使用对工作记忆训练迁移效应的影响

近期有研究发现,在工作记忆训练中给予一定策略指导会产生训练的迁移,但也有研究发现,工作记忆训练中的策略指导仅产生有限的迁移。这可能与不同策略的使用有关,如果在工作记忆训练前就已经获得并熟悉有关策略,在工作记忆训练过程中使用该策略就成为一种自动化加工,未产生足够的认知负荷,任务对认知资源的需求降低,降低个体的注意力,未能真正提高个体的工作记忆能力,仅产生了有限的迁移。今后的研究应该关注策略的使用对工作记忆训练迁移效应的神经机制,在特殊群体中验证该问题并建立影响工作记忆训练迁移效应的综合模型。     

基于手机APP的双维n-back训练的认知与情绪效益

工作记忆训练的训练获益能够迁移至与工作记忆相关的各项基础认知活动中去。基于情绪认知控制与工作记忆之间的密切关联, 本研究设计了一种新型情绪性双维n-back训练, 并且验证利用手机APP搭载训练任务的适用性。结果表明：基于APP的短期双维n-back训练能够使个体在视空间工作记忆任务、活动记忆任务、数字转换任务、Stroop任务上的成绩产生相较控制组更大的进步, 表明训练可以提高个体工作记忆的容量和中央执行功能。然而, 基于不同情绪材料的训练(中性、负性、正性)在各类迁移上差异不大。短期训练无法迁移到情绪Stroop任务中, 即无法产生特异的情绪控制上的效益。双维n-back任务通道单一, 且搭载于手机APP, 拥有较为广阔的应用前景。但将情绪材料单纯地糅合进工作记忆任务中的价值与意义须被进一步考察。     

工作记忆训练及对数学能力的迁移作用

工作记忆缺陷会影响个体数学能力发展。通过记忆策略、广度、刷新、转换等功能的工作记忆训练,可以改善个体认知功能。然而,工作记忆训练对个体的阅读、数学、流体智力等方面的远迁移效果并不一致。研究表明,工作记忆训练可以改善数感、视觉空间能力、推理能力等数学一般技能;也会通过改善语音工作记忆以及空间能力促进数学计算能力,或者通过改善中央执行系统,提升数学问题表征、模式识别、解题迁移、策略选择等复杂的过程,从而促进数学问题解决能力。因此,区分不同数学任务的认知过程,可以获得工作记忆训练对数学能力迁移效果的进一步证据。今后,神经影像学的证据或许也是未来工作记忆训练对数学能力提高的又一佐证。     

工作记忆训练及对数学能力的迁移作用

工作记忆缺陷会影响个体数学能力发展。通过记忆策略、广度、刷新、转换等功能的工作记忆训练,可以改善个体认知功能。然而,工作记忆训练对个体的阅读、数学、流体智力等方面的远迁移效果并不一致。研究表明,工作记忆训练可以改善数感、视觉空间能力、推理能力等数学一般技能;也会通过改善语音工作记忆以及空间能力促进数学计算能力,或者通过改善中央执行系统,提升数学问题表征、模式识别、解题迁移、策略选择等复杂的过程,从而促进数学问题解决能力。因此,区分不同数学任务的认知过程,可以获得工作记忆训练对数学能力迁移效果的进一步证据。今后,神经影像学的证据或许也是未来工作记忆训练对数学能力提高的又一佐证。     

任务结构相似性对工作记忆训练迁移效应的影响

研究发现,个体的工作记忆能力通过训练可以提高。但是,目前对于工作记忆训练的迁移效应,尚未有统一的结论。本文通过梳理相关研究,发现训练任务与评估迁移效应任务之间的结构相似性会对迁移效应产生影响。结构相似性即训练任务和未训练任务之间共享加工和加工程序,而这个共享加工和加工程序能通过发展相似的策略实现工作记忆训练的迁移。今后研究应该更加注意以往研究设计中的不足,针对不同群体的工作记忆训练效果的机制分别进行研究。     

数学能力的改善:针对工作记忆训练的元分析

工作记忆训练指针对工作记忆各成分进行的训练,以实现个体记忆与其他认知能力的提升。该领域一直都是研究者关注的热点,越来越多的研究正在试图利用工作记忆训练改善个体的数学能力。然而回顾过往的研究,发现研究所关注的数学能力类型、针对的被试人群、使用的方法、结论等存在较大差异,目前尚没有系统性综述专门探讨工作记忆训练对数学能力的影响。因此,本文首先回顾和数学能力有关的工作记忆训练方式,然后结合元分析,从数感、运算能力和数学推理能力三个方面,分别回顾归纳工作记忆训练对数学能力的提升作用。具体而言,尽管研究数量相对有限,工作记忆训练可能有效改善数感,其效应量为中等(Cohen’s d=0.51);而可能无法有效改善运算和数学推理能力,它们的效应量小(运算:Cohen’s d=0.04;数学推理:Cohen’s d=-0.06)。此外,训练目标类型与训练效果有着密切的联系。     

工作记忆训练提升幼儿流体智力表现

目前已有许多研究证据表明, 工作记忆训练能提高成人、儿童的流体智力成绩, 然而这种训练是否能够提高幼儿的流体智力表现, 更为重要的是, 如果训练确有成效, 那么这种训练效果能否长期保持？为此, 本研究选择了幼儿园4~5岁幼儿进行工作记忆训练任务, 考察工作记忆训练对流体智力的提升及保持效应。实验中设立3个组：实验组、控制1组和控制2组。实验组采用单个空间n-back的工作记忆游戏程序进行训练, 控制1组采用“水果忍者”的游戏程序进行训练, 两组进行游戏训练的时间均为14天, 每天15 min; 控制2组不进行任何训练。结果发现, 训练后实验组幼儿被试的流体智力成绩明显优于两个控制组, 在6个月后再进行测试, 这种优势仍然保持。本研究结果表明, n-back工作记忆训练可以提高幼儿的流体智力成绩, 并且这种训练效果具有持续的稳定性。     

Training counting skills and working memory in preschool

Previous studies have shown that early numeracy skills predict later mathematics learning and that they can be improved by training. Cognitive abilities, especially working memory (WM), play an important role in early numeracy, as well. Several studies have shown that working memory is related to early numeracy. So far, existing literature offers a good few examples of studies in which WM training has led to improvements in early numerical performance as well. In this study, we aim at investigating the effects of two different training conditions: (1) counting training; and (2) simultaneous training of WM and counting on five‐ to six‐year‐old preschoolers' (N = 61) counting skills. The results show that domain‐specific training in mathematical skills is more effective in improving early numerical performance than WM and counting training combined. Based on our results, preschool‐aged children do not seem to benefit from short period group training of WM skills. However, because of several intervening factors, one should not conclude that young children's WM training is ineffectual. Instead, future studies should be conducted to further investigate the issue.     

Does working memory training work? The promise and challenges of enhancing cognition by training working memory

A growing body of literature shows that one's working memory (WM) capacity can be expanded through targeted training. Given the established relationship between WM and higher cognition, these successful training studies have led to speculation that WM training may yield broad cognitive benefits. This review considers the current state of the emerging WM training literature, and details both its successes and limitations. We identify two distinct approaches to WM training, strategy training and core training, and highlight both the theoretical and practical motivations that guide each approach. Training-related increases in WM capacity have been successfully demonstrated across a wide range of subject populations, but different training techniques seem to produce differential impacts upon the broader landscape of cognitive abilities. In particular, core WM training studies seem to produce more far-reaching transfer effects, likely because they target domain-general mechanisms of WM. The results of individual studies encourage optimism regarding the value of WM training as a tool for general cognitive enhancement. However, we discuss several limitations that should be addressed before the field endorses the value of this approach.     

Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies

The efficacy of working memory (WM) training has been a controversial and hotly debated issue during the past years. Despite a large number of training studies and several meta-analyses, the matter has not yet been solved. We conducted a multi-level meta-analysis on the cognitive transfer effects in healthy adults who have been administered WM updating training with n-back tasks, the most common experimental WM training paradigm. Thanks to this methodological approach that has not been employed in previous meta-analyses in this field, we were able to include effect sizes from all relevant tasks used in the original studies. Altogether 203 effect sizes were derived from 33 published, randomized, controlled trials. In contrast to earlier meta-analyses, we separated task-specific transfer (here untrained n-back tasks) from other WM transfer tasks. Two additional cognitive domains of transfer that we analyzed consisted of fluid intelligence (Gf) and cognitive control tasks. A medium-sized transfer effect was observed to untrained n-back tasks. For other WM tasks, Gf, and cognitive control, the effect sizes were of similar size and very small. Moderator analyses showed no effects of age, training dose, training type (single vs. dual), or WM and Gf transfer task contents (verbal vs. visuospatial). We conclude that a substantial part of transfer following WM training with the n-back task is task-specific and discuss the implications of the results to WM training research.     

The effectiveness of computerized cognitive training on working memory in a school setting

Working memory (WM) is a significant predictor of academic performance. Emerging empirical evidence has shown that WM can be improved via computerized cognitive training (CCT). Though studies have shown that CCT can improve WM in typical and atypical populations, little is known regarding the efficacy of implementing CCT within a school setting. To address this, the current study examines whether CCT can be efficaciously implemented to remediate WM deficits in students during the school day. Among 17 participants from a school for students with learning differences, nine engaged in a CCT program for a total of 20 hr, whereas the remaining eight students engaged in an out-of-class reading activity. Pretest to posttest differences showed that auditory WM abilities significantly improved only for those who received the training program. These results provide initial support for the efficacy of implementing CCT training within the school setting to improve WM.     

Is working memory training effective?

Working memory (WM) is a cognitive system that strongly relates to a person's ability to reason with novel information and direct attention to goal-relevant information. Due to the central role that WM plays in general cognition, it has become the focus of a rapidly growing training literature that seeks to affect broad cognitive change through prolonged training on WM tasks. Recent work has suggested that the effects of WM training extend to general fluid intelligence, attentional control, and reductions in symptoms of ADHD. We present a theoretically motivated perspective of WM and subsequently review the WM training literature in light of several concerns. These include (a) the tendency for researchers to define change to abilities using single tasks, (b) inconsistent use of valid WM tasks, (c) no-contact control groups, and (d) subjective measurement of change. The literature review highlights several findings that warrant further research but ultimately concludes that there is a need to directly demonstrate that WM capacity increases in response to training. Specifically, we argue that transfer of training to WM must be demonstrated using a wider variety of tasks, thus eliminating the possibility that results can be explained by task specific learning. Additionally, we express concern that many of the most promising results (e.g., increased intelligence) cannot be readily attributed to changes in WM capacity. Thus, a critical goal for future research is to uncover the mechanisms that lead to transfer of training.     

工作记忆中的积极效应：情绪效价与任务相关性的影响

积极效应指相比于年轻人, 老年人更倾向于优先加工积极情绪刺激而非消极情绪刺激。近年来工作记忆的研究发现积极效应会受到情绪效价与任务相关性的影响：情绪效价作为任务相关属性的研究支持工作记忆中存在积极效应, 具体表现为老年人对积极情绪刺激记忆的增强, 以及对消极情绪刺激记忆的减弱; 情绪效价作为工作记忆任务无关属性的研究相对较少, 且未发现一致的积极效应, 提示情绪效价及任务相关性均为影响工作记忆积极效应的关键因素。脑成像的研究初步表明, 工作记忆中情绪加工上的年龄效应与背侧执行系统和腹侧情绪系统的随龄功能变化有关。社会情绪选择理论与双竞争模型对工作记忆中的积极效应具备较大的解释力, 而动态整合理论尚缺乏实证研究支持。未来研究可进一步探究老年人工作记忆不同阶段情绪加工的特点, 澄清不同情绪材料内在编码过程上的差异对积极效应发生机制的潜在影响, 探讨情绪效价及任务相关性影响工作记忆积极效应的关键神经环路, 并揭示情绪工作记忆训练提升老年人认知功能与情绪体验的内在机制及其潜在应用价值。     

Number sense or working memory? The effect of two computer-based trainings on mathematical skills in elementary school

Research on the improvement of elementary school mathematics has shown that computer-based training of number sense (e.g., processing magnitudes or locating numbers on the number line) can lead to substantial achievement gains in arithmetic skills. Recent studies, however, have highlighted that training domain-general cognitive abilities (e.g., working memory [WM]) may also improve mathematical achievement. This study addressed the question of whether a training of domain-specific number sense skills or domain-general WM abilities is more appropriate for improving mathematical abilities in elementary school. Fifty-nine children (M_age = 9 years, 32 girls and 27 boys) received either a computer-based, adaptive training of number sense (n = 20), WM skills (n = 19), or served as a control group (n = 20). The training duration was 20 min per day for 15 days. Before and after training, we measured mathematical ability using a curriculum-based math test, as well as spatial WM. For both training groups, we observed substantial increases in the math posttest compared to the control group (d = .54 for number sense skills training, d = .57 for WM training, respectively). Whereas the number sense group showed significant gains in arithmetical skills, the WM training group exhibited marginally significant gains in word problem solving. However, no training group showed significant posttest gains on the spatial WM task. Results indicate that a short training of either domain-specific or domain-general skills may result in reliable short-term training gains in math performance, although no stable training effects were found in the spatial WM task.     

Effect of working memory training on working memory,arithmetic and following instructions

Mathematical ability is dependent on specific mathematical training but also associated with a range of cognitive factors, including working memory (WM) capacity. Previous studies have shown that WM training leads to improvement in non-trained WM tasks, but the results regarding transfer to mathematics are inconclusive. In the present study, 176 children with WM deficits, aged 7–15 years performed 5 weeks of WM training. During the training period, they were assessed five times with a test of complex WM (the Odd One Out), a test of remembering and following instructions and a test of arithmetic. The improvements were compared to the performance of a control group of 304 typically developing children aged 7–15 years who performed the same transfer tasks at the same time intervals, but without training. The training group improved significantly more than the control group on all three transfer tests (all p < 0.0001), after correction for baseline performance, age and sex. The effect size for mathematics was small and the effect sizes for the WM tasks were moderate to large. The transfer increased linearly with the amount of training time and correlated with the amount of improvement on the trained tasks. These results confirm previous findings of training-induced improvements in non-trained WM tasks including the ability to follow instructions, but extend previous findings by showing improvements also for arithmetic. This is encouraging regarding the potential role of cognitive training for education, but it is desirable to find paradigms that would enhance the effect of the training on mathematics. One of the future challenges for studying training effects is combining large sample sizes with high quality and compliance, to detect relevant but smaller effects of cognitive training.     

Age-specific differences of dual n-back training

Age-related decline in executive functions can be decisive in performing everyday tasks autonomously. Working memory (WM) is closely related to executive functions, and training of WM has yielded evidence toward cognitive plasticity in older adults. The training effects often transfer to untrained tasks and functions. These effects have mostly been shown in processes such as WM and attention, whereas studies investigating transfer to executive functions have been scarce. We trained older adults aged 57–73 years in a WM training task that was reported to be effective in producing transfer in young adults. The training intervention consisted of a dual n-back task including independently processed auditory and visual n-back tasks. We investigated transfer to tasks engaging executive functions, and compared the effects in older adults to those reported in young adults. We found that both training groups improved in the training task. Although the training effect in older adults was smaller than the training effect in young adults, the older adults still showed a notable improvement so that after training they performed on the same level as young adults without training. The older adults also showed transfer to an untrained WM updating task, a result that was in accordance with the findings in young adults; other transfer effects in older adults were lacking. We conclude that although transfer effects were scarce, the present study provides encouraging evidence toward the possibilities to compensate for age-related decline in executive functions by a WM training intervention.     

Effects of game‐based and standard executive control training on cognitive and academic abilities in elementary school children

Several studies indicate that executive functions (EF), such as working memory (WM), inhibition or flexibility can be improved by training and that these training‐related benefits in WM capacity generalize to reading and mathematical abilities. However, the results of these studies are inconsistent and most of them focused on WM training in children with learning difficulties. Evidence for typically developing children is rare and no study has investigated inhibition training or flexibility training. There is also a lack of studies taking motivational factors into account. Therefore, this study compared the effects of game‐based and standard training regimens targeting WM, inhibition, or flexibility in children. One hundred and fifty‐three typically developing elementary school students (mean age = 9.6 years, standard deviations  = 0.8) were investigated in an intervention design with a pretest, 21 sessions of training, a posttest and a follow‐up after three months. They were randomized into one of six training groups or a control group. We found training gains in all training groups and higher self‐reported motivation in the game‐based as compared to the standard training groups. Furthermore, there was domain‐specific transfer to untrained EF tasks across all training groups. We found greater performance improvements in reading ability (but not mathematics) in the game‐based flexibility training group and the game‐based inhibition training group as compared to the control group. Transfer effects were still significant at follow‐up. In sum, our findings provide first evidence for a systematic comparison of training on different domains of EF and their differential effects on academic abilities.