大学生职业性别刻板印象的内隐研究

本研究采用内隐联想测验（IAT）和刻板解释偏差（SEB）两种方法对大学生的职业性别刻板印象进行了内隐研究。发现被试整体在两次实验中均表现出极为显著的内隐刻板印象,女大学生头脑中的刻板印象对其行为归因已形成显著影响。研究结果表明,SEB是一种测量内隐刻板印象的有效方法。     

积极总是好的吗？积极元刻板印象对工作记忆的影响及其机制

以往关于元刻板印象的研究集中于消极视角,而对积极元刻板印象如何影响认知加工缺乏相应探讨。本研究采用N-back任务,选取农村大学生为被试,通过3个实验考察积极元刻板印象激活对工作记忆的影响及其机制。结果表明,在工作记忆高难度任务(2-back)中,积极元刻板印象激活会导致更低的正确率,趋近动机在其中起中介作用,核心自我评价起调节作用,即积极元刻板印象激活会通过增加趋近动机,降低高难度任务的正确率,且这一效应仅存在于高核心自我评价者中。本研究将积极元刻板印象窒息效应拓展到认知加工领域,并且揭示了窒息效应的内在机制。     

消极元刻板印象激活对老年人认知表现的影响

本研究以59名老年人为研究对象,采用N-back认知任务探讨在不同难度的认知负荷任务中老年人消极元刻板印象激活的认知效应。结果发现：1、消极元刻板印象激活组的正确率显著低于未激活组;高认知负荷任务组的正确率显著低于低认知负荷任务组。2、消极元刻板印象激活组的反应时显著长于未激活组;高认知负荷任务组的反应时显著长于低认知负荷任务组;组别与任务难度之间交互作用达到边缘显著,在低认知负荷任务中,消极元刻板印象激活组和未激活组的反应时差异不显著,在高认知负荷任务中,消极元刻板印象激活组的反应时显著长于未激活组。上述结果表明,老年人消极元刻板印象的激活导致了负面的认知效应。     

老年人的元刻板印象及其对社会互动的影响

本研究考察了老年人的元刻板印象及其对老年人社会互动的影响。预研究以35名老年人为被试,通过访谈和开放式问卷,获得老年人积极与消极元刻板印象形容词。正式研究以140名老年人为被试,通过问卷调查,首先确定老年人元刻板印象的内容与结构;然后分析发现,当老年人作为社会互动的接受方时：（1）积极元刻板印象正向预测其接受外群体帮助的意愿（包括自主定向帮助和依赖定向帮助）,并且接受帮助可引发积极受助体验;（2）消极元刻板印象只正向预测老年人接受外群体自主定向帮助的意愿,且持消极元刻板印象的老年人受助体验消极。当老年人作为社会互动的发出方时;（3）积极元刻板印象正向预测老年人社会参与的频率和他们对外群体的施助意愿;（4）消极元刻板印象对施助意愿和社会参与的预测作用均不显著。综上,老年人的积极元刻板印象能促进他们的社会互动,并使他们获得良好的互动体验。     

老年人的元刻板印象及其对社会互动的影响

本研究考察了老年人的元刻板印象及其对老年人社会互动的影响。预研究以35名老年人为被试，通过访谈和开放式问卷，获得老年人积极与消极元刻板印象形容词。正式研究以140名老年人为被试，通过问卷调查，首先确定老年人元刻板印象的内容与结构；然后分析发现，当老年人作为社会互动的接受方时：（1）积极元刻板印象正向预测其接受外群体帮助的意愿（包括自主定向帮助和依赖定向帮助），并且接受帮助可引发积极受助体验；（2）消极元刻板印象只正向预测老年人接受外群体自主定向帮助的意愿，且持消极元刻板印象的老年人受助体验消极。当老年人作为社会互动的发出方时；（3）积极元刻板印象正向预测老年人社会参与的频率和他们对外群体的施助意愿；（4）消极元刻板印象对施助意愿和社会参与的预测作用均不显著。综上，老年人的积极元刻板印象能促进他们的社会互动，并使他们获得良好的互动体验。     

家人情感卷入对老年自我刻板印象的影响：基于潜变量增长模型的分析

本研究使用问卷法对257名老年人进行了历时1年的3次追踪测试, 采用潜变量增长模型与交叉滞后回归分析考察了家人情感卷入与老年自我刻板印象的变化趋势, 家人情感卷入发展与老年自我刻板印象发展的关系, 以及家人情感卷入对老年自我刻板印象的时序效应。结果发现：(1)老年人感知到的家人情感卷入在1年内呈线性递减, 而老年自我刻板印象呈线性增长; (2)家人情感卷入的初始水平负向预测老年自我刻板印象的初始水平与增长速率; (3)家人情感卷入的下降速率也显著预测了老年自我刻板印象的增长速率; (4)交叉滞后回归分析进一步支持了老年人家人情感卷入对老年自我刻板印象的总体负向预测作用。本研究为老年刻板印象内化的家庭过程提供了理论支持, 并对减少老年刻板印象内化、改善消极老年自我刻板印象的干预具有一定的实践价值。     

刻板印象内容对刻板印象抑制反弹效应的影响

通过两个实验探讨了刻板印象内容对刻板印象抑制反弹效应的影响。实验1以"罪犯"(低温情,低能力)和"老年人"(高温情,低能力)构成不同类型的刻板印象群体,发现在温情和能力上得分都低的群体与温情高能力低或温情低能力高的群体相比,在刻板印象抑制后更可能出现反弹效应。值得注意的是,反弹效应仅在目标群体(罪犯)的能力维度上出现。在实验2中,"老年人"和"富人"构成作为两种不同的混合型刻板印象群体。结果表明:对于高能力低温情群体的抑制比对高温情低能力群体的抑制更困难。     

老年夫妻的老化刻板印象对死亡焦虑的行动者效应和对象效应

目的：考察老年人的老化刻板印象对自身及配偶的死亡焦虑的影响。方法：145对老年夫妻完成老化印象量表和死亡焦虑量表,并运用行动者-对象互依模型进行数据分析。结果：（1）老化刻板印象和死亡焦虑在夫妻内部分别具有一致性;（2）老化刻板印象对自身死亡焦虑的行动者效应显著;（3）丈夫的积极老化刻板印象对妻子死亡焦虑的对象效应显著,妻子的消极老化刻板印象对丈夫死亡焦虑的对象效应显著。结论：老年人的老化刻板印象不仅影响自身而且影响配偶的死亡焦虑,但夫妻之间的影响存在性别差异。     

人际交往中的认知偏差简析

现代社会个人的成长和发展离不开有效的人际交往,而人际交往中的认知偏差往往会影响人们人际交往的效果和质量,了解和认清人际交往中的认知偏差有利于我们建立良好的人际关系。文章对可能影响人际交往的首因效应、晕轮效应、刻板印象、基本归因偏差、虚假一致偏差及当事人与旁观者归因分歧的含义、表现和原因作了简要分析,以期能帮助人们对人际交往中的认知偏差加以防范和纠正,提高人们的人际交往能力。     

元刻板印象的效价与效应相回馈吗?

元刻板印象的效价有积极和消极之分, 其效应也存在积极和消极之别。然而, 目前关于元刻板印象效价与效应的关系还存在争议。元刻板印象的威胁效应和促进效应遵从回馈原则, 而阻抗效应和窒息效应不遵从回馈原则。不同效应产生的条件包括元刻板印象检索难度、元刻板印象个体化程度、个体内部资源、印象管理动机以及群体社会地位等。未来研究可在不同元刻板印象效应的适用范围及边界条件, 干预方法, 激活方式的比较等方面进行拓展。     

Interactions between stereotype threat,subjective aging,and memory in older adults

This study examined whether the effects of stereotype threat on memory and subjective age were moderated by positive age stereotypes and self-perceptions of aging among older adults. Perceived threat as a mechanism underlying these effects was also explored. Results showed that stereotype threat (high vs. low threat) did not affect the dependent variables. Moreover, self-perceptions of aging did not moderate the effect of stereotype threat on the dependent variables. However, for people with more positive age stereotypes, older people under highthreat perceived more threat than people under low threat. This could be explained by an effect of age stereotypes in the high-threat group: the more positive age stereotypes held by participants, the more they perceived threat, which in turn decreased their memory performance and made them feel mentally older. We hypothesized that age group identity is stronger in people with more positive age stereotypes, which increase perceived threat.     

On Working Memory Capacity and Implicit Associations between Advanced Age and Dangerous Driving Stereotypes

Despite a large literature on implicit stereotypes, no one has scientifically documented the stereotype that older adults are dangerous drivers, even though its existence may impact older adults' driving performance through stereotype threat. The present studies are the first to use implicit tests to document the stereotype that older adult drivers are dangerous drivers. Experiment 1 (N = 159) documented a negative stereotype of older adult drivers in young and older adults by using a novel driving and age Implicit Association Test (IAT). Experiment 2 (N = 216) demonstrated that individual differences in working memory capacity moderate the degree to which young adults can willfully change this IAT score such that higher working memory capacity was associated with greater control of this negative stereotype of age and driving. This finding illustrates the potential utility of working memory capacity in interventions designed to reduce the impact of implicit stereotypes and negative attitudes. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reducing stereotype threat by blurring intergroup boundaries

The authors aimed to establish whether interventions designed to reduce intergroup bias could be applied to the stereotype threat domain. In three experiments, the hypothesis was tested that blurring intergroup boundaries would reduce stereotype threat. In the first study, it was found that female participants who thought about characteristics shared between the genders tended to show less preference for stereotypical female careers than did participants in the baseline condition. In Experiment 2, participants who thought about overlapping characteristics answered more math questions correctly compared to a baseline group and participants who thought about differences between the genders. In Experiment 3, a specific threat manipulation was included. Participants who completed the overlapping characteristics task before receiving the threat completed significantly more math questions correctly than did participants in the baseline and threat conditions. The findings support the idea that interventions designed to reduce intergroup bias can be applied successfully in the reduction of stereotype threat.     

老年刻板印象威胁及其研究操纵

随着人口老龄化的不断加剧, 老年刻板印象威胁受到越来越多的关注。不同于种族或民族、性别等刻板印象威胁, 老年刻板印象威胁表现出累积性、共通性与连续性等特征。目前关于老年刻板印象威胁的研究多集中于认知老化尤其是记忆老化上, 关注老年刻板印象威胁对老年司机和老年员工的消极影响。消除与降低老年刻板印象威胁的消极效应可以从认知改变、群体认同、代际接触、老龄自我实现和个性化以及媒体宣传等五个方面来进行。在实验室研究中, 老年刻板印象威胁有外显与内隐两种不同的操纵形式。未来可以从扩展研究领域、细化“年龄”差异、比较整体效应大小和性别差异、侧重积极效应以及加强本土化检验和跨文化比较研究等方面来深化。     

Reducing the effect of stereotype threat: the role of coaction contexts and regulatory fit

Two experiments examined the effects of competition and cooperation contexts, as well as regulatory fit, on reducing the negative influence of stereotype threat. Experiment 1 demonstrated that in high stereotype threat conditions, participants in the cooperation context scored significantly higher on a math test than those in the competition context, while participants in low stereotype threat conditions did not differ in both contexts. Experiment 2 found that under stereotype threat, participants with induced prevention focus scored significantly higher on a math test in the cooperation context than those in the competition context or control group. At the same time, participants with induced promotion foci did not differ between the contexts. Thus, while the cooperation context may counteract the effect of stereotype threat, inducing a promotion focus may create a regulatory fit in the competition context that could also remove the effect of stereotype threat.     

Stereotype threat strengthens automatic recall and undermines controlled processes in older adults

The threat of being judged stereotypically (stereotype threat) may impair memory performance in older adults, thereby producing inflated age differences in memory tasks. However, the underlying mechanisms of stereotype threat in older adults or other stigmatized groups remain poorly understood. Here, we offer evidence that stereotype threat consumes working memory resources in older adults. More important, using a process-dissociation procedure, we found, for the first time, that stereotype threat undermines the controlled use of memory and simultaneously intensifies automatic response tendencies. These findings indicate that competing models of stereotype threat are actually compatible and offer further reasons for researchers and practitioners to pay special attention to age-related stereotypes during standardized neuropsychological testing.     

Effects of age and interpersonal contact on stereotyping of the elderly

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the age of an individual, the type of contact an individual has with the elderly, the amount of knowledge an individual has about the elderly, and the extent that the individual stereotypes the elderly. In accordance with the Social Identity Theory and the Contact Hypothesis, stereotyping was predicted to be higher among individuals who did not identify with nor have contact with the elderly. Fifty young (18-25 years of age) and fifty elderly (64-79 years of age) participants completed surveys measuring their level of contact with the elderly, knowledge about aging (knowledge score), and tendency to stereotype the elderly (stereotype score). Results of this study indicated that regardless of age, participant knowledge of aging and application of aging stereotypes were affected by the quality of contact experienced. Although the young participants achieved significantly higher knowledge scores than the elderly participants, there was no significant age difference in stereotype scores for the young and elderly groups. However, as predicted, the young and elderly participants who experienced high levels of contact with the elderly achieved higher knowledge scores and lower stereotype scores. These scores were compared to the respective scores of the young and elderly participants experiencing low levels of contact with the elderly. Moreover, the elderly participants experiencing low levels of contact with the elderly achieved lower knowledge scores than any of the other groups. Elderly participants experiencing low levels of contact with other competent elderly individuals may be more susceptible to the negative effects of aging stereotypes and at risk for not identifying with their own social group.     

Stereotype threat reduces false recognition when older adults are forewarned

Exposing older adults to ageing stereotypes can reduce their memory for studied information—a phenomenon attributed to stereotype threat—but little is known about stereotype effects on false memory. Here, we assessed ageing stereotype effects on the Deese-Roediger-McDermott false memory illusion. Older adults studied lists of semantically associated words, and then read a passage about age-related memory decline (threat condition) or an age-neutral passage (control condition). They then took a surprise memory test with a warning to avoid false recognition of non-studied associates. Relative to the control condition, activating stereotype threat reduced the recognition of both studied and non-studied words, implicating a conservative criterion shift for associated test words. These results indicate that stereotype threat can reduce false memory, and they help to clarify mixed results from prior ageing research. Consistent with the regulatory focus hypothesis, threat motivates older adults to respond more conservatively when error-prevention is emphasised at retrieval.     

Effects of age and interpersonal contact on stereotyping of the elderly

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the age of an individual, the type of contact an individual has with the elderly, the amount of knowledge an individual has about the elderly, and the extent that the individual stereotypes the elderly. In accordance with the Social Identity Theory and the Contact Hypothesis, stereotyping was predicted to be higher among individuals who did not identify with nor have contact with the elderly. Fifty young (18-25 years of age) and fifty elderly (64-79 years of age) participants completed surveys measuring their level of contact with the elderly, knowledge about aging (knowledge score), and tendency to stereotype the elderly (stereotype score). Results of this study indicated that regardless of age, participant knowledge of aging and application of aging stereotypes were affected by the quality of contact experienced. Although the young participants achieved significantly higher knowledge scores than the elderly participants, there was no significant age difference in stereotype scores for the young and elderly groups. However, as predicted, the young and elderly participants who experienced high levels of contact with the elderly achieved higher knowledge scores and lower stereotype scores. These scores were compared to the respective scores of the young and elderly participants experiencing low levels of contact with the elderly. Moreover, the elderly participants experiencing low levels of contact with the elderly achieved lower knowledge scores than any of the other groups. Elderly participants experiencing low levels of contact with other competent elderly individuals may be more susceptible to the negative effects of aging stereotypes and at risk for not identifying with their own social group.