年幼儿童人物画结构变化及其影响因素

儿童人物画突出的结构特点是比例不协调。该研究考察了三百多名４．５－６．５岁幼儿的人物画,发现４．５岁到６．５岁幼儿自由画人躯干面积和头的面积的比值平均为１．３０,头的面积稍小于躯干的面积;自由画人躯干与头的面积的比值在４．５到６．５岁之间,变化曲线呈“Ｎ＂字形;这一比值的变化是和幼儿对于人体结构的认知发展有关的;临摹标准比例范画对于幼儿人物画的结构有显著影响,但是除了４．５－５岁之外,临摹画人与自由画人躯干／头的比值变化趋势基本一致;改变绘画顺序以及身体部位的功能性夸大对于幼儿人物画结构都有显著影响。     

画人智力测验评分项目的再确定

该研究参照国内外已有的画人测验材料 ,并在以往使用绘人智能测验的基础上 ,重新设计 ,提出了一份包含 80个评分项目的画人评分标准。新标准首先在课题组内试用修改 ,然后又用于 9名标准评分员的培训 ,最后运用总计 2 5 8名 ,年龄为 6～ 1 2岁的小学儿童作预试 ,进行系统的项目分析。在上述过程中 ,对项目进行反复推敲删改 ,最终形成了一份供制订画人智力测验常模用的画人评分标准。该标准分有无、细节、比例、奖励四个维度 ,按身体部位分成头、头发、眼、耳、鼻、口、颈、躯干、上肢、手、下肢、脚以及连接和服饰共十四个大类 ,每大类包含 4～ 8个评分点 ,总计 75个评分点。     

儿童青少年人格的“小五”结构

近年来受人格“大五”因素研究的影响而发展起来的儿童青少年人格的“小五”结构研究,是儿童青少年个别差异研究的新方向.研究主要采用了量表评定、Q分类、自由描述等方法.结果表明,五因素结构可以较好地解释儿童青少年的人格特点.目前,这一结构还有许多值得研究者继续探讨之处,但是它的确为揭示人格“大五”结构的发生发展起到了重要作用.     

儿童早期词汇获得的词类差

儿童早期词汇获得存在词类差异,很多语言中名词比例都要高于其他词类,因此一些研究者提出“名词优势”理论。但是,一些对汉语和韩语的研究发现,儿童早期获得的动词比例与名词没有显著差异,甚至高于名词,同时汉语和韩语动词比例也远大于英语动词比例。针对不同语言儿童早期获得的动、名词比例差异现象,研究者认为语言结构特征和成人对孩子的言语输入可以解释不同语言儿童早期词汇中动、名词比例的差异,其中成人言语中词类的频率、单词位置、词形变化复杂性和语用等因素都会影响儿童早期词汇获得。此外,不同的词汇测量方法、观察情境、词类定义、词汇量水平、单词理解与说出也会造成不同研究结果之间的差异     

从沈周《自画像》看其晚年心境与作品的情感表达

中国传统人物画的存在成为教化民众、弃恶扬善的工具。明代以后,人本主义的思想意识兴起,人物画创作亦逐渐摆脱思想教化的桎梏。尤其以沈周为代表的文人画中的人物题材,出现了表现性灵、抒发画家自身的情感、表述日常的生活细节、捕捉有情趣的瞬间等内容。这多方面因素的综合,在有意无意中改变着明代人物画的整体面貌。     

儿童对观察者预期造成的模糊刺激解释多样性的理解

研究考察6~8岁儿童在由观察者预期造成的对模糊信息有多样解释上的理解.操纵影响观察者预期的因素,包括知觉经验、知识水平、先前经历和偏见,要求儿童预测观察者对局限视野图形或两可动作信息的解释.结果表明,6岁儿童仅对观察者偏见影响其对行动者行为的解释拥有部分理解,他们还不能理解知觉经验和知识水平会影响观察者对视觉刺激的解释,以及先前经历会影响观察者对行动者行为的解释.7岁儿童除了知识水平外,其它三方面的理解都已发展起来.8岁儿童可以理解多种观察者预期造成的解释差异,解释性心理理论比较稳定,但离完全成熟的理解还有一段距离.     

群体情境下儿童的分配公平性

群体情境下儿童的资源分配决策受到群体身份、群体地位和群体规范的影响。在群体因素与公平分配之间, 儿童或坚持公平正义, 或偏向群体利益。这三种群体因素对儿童的分配公平性均造成了影响; 个体因素也会影响群体情境下儿童的分配决策。未来研究应对群体因素多加关注, 通过操控分配情境中的群体信息, 尝试探讨三种群体因素之间的相互作用, 以进一步了解复杂的群体情境下儿童的分配公平性。群体情境下影响分配公平性的个体因素也是需要未来研究逐一验证和讨论的问题。     

最近西方国家关于非器貭性閱读障碍的一些看法

閱讀障碍是語言障碍(广义的)的一种。根据西方资本主义国家一般文献記載,有閱讀障碍的儿童約占全部在学儿童的10%;男孩多于女孩,其比例約为5:1;这些儿童的智力发展沒有显明缺陷,但常常发生学习困难和留級等現象。閱讀障碍和某些其他語言障碍常須經过仔細观察和特殊的临床检查才能确定。有些儿童由于未被教师或父母发現此类障碍而被誤认为智力缺陷、迟鈍或不用功等。但当这些障碍治愈或自愈后,儿童的学习就非常順利了。閱讀障碍可分为两大类:1.失讀症,指閱讀完全不能,有先天性的和后天性的两种。先天性的也受环境和教育的影响,后天性的是在某些躯     

关于儿童比和比例概念发展的研究(综述)

儿童比例概念的形成是儿童数学思维发展中的关键性转折。由于它在实际工作和日常生活中非常有用,但掌握起来又相当困难,受到国内外心理学研究工作者们的普遍重视。在皮亚杰儿童数学思维发展理论的影响下,人们对其发展过程、内部认知结构、及其影响因素等问题进行了深入探讨,并提出不少有意义的理论和观点。这方面的研究主要是围绕五个方面展开的:(1)比例问题研究方法;(2)比例推理策略;(3)比例推理发展理论;(4)影响比例概念形成的因素;(5)比例推理能力的获得与教学的关系。不同研究者所持观点和研究方法不同,研究结果也不尽相同。为提高我国中、小学比例概念的教学水平,促进儿童比例概念的研究,特将国内外主要有关研究综述如下。数学中比的概念是由两个数的除:a/b;比例概念则是两个比的平衡状态:a/b vs c/d。比例概念在日常生活和许多学科中应用广泛,是小学数学思维向中学数学思维发展的转折。然而,能够真正掌握科学的比例概念对于小学高年级和初中学生来说并不是一件容易的事。Capon和Pallrand(1979)指出,比例概念形成是比较晚的,甚至许多成人也没有最终掌握它。对比例概念形成的科学研究最早始于Winch(1913—1914),但直到二十五年前才开始受到广泛的重视。目前比例概念的研究重点正在从将其视为一种综合能和一般性认知结构的探讨,转移到对发展过程和影响发展的因素的研究方面。遗憾的是至今国内还很少见到有关方面比较系统的研究报告。比例概念的研究主要是围绕以下四个方面展开的:(1)比例问题的研究方法;(2)比例推理的策略;(3)影响比例概念形成的因素;(4)比例推理与数学关系。     

近十年来我国儿童孤独感的研究现状与展望

儿童孤独感是儿童觊觎自己对同伴关系与友谊质量的自我知觉而产生的一种消极的、弥漫性的主观情绪体验。近十年来,国内学者开始关注留守儿童、学业不良儿童的孤独感,探讨同伴关系、认知因素、家庭环境、师生关系以及社会支持等因素对儿童孤独感的影响,但缺乏适合本土化的儿童孤独感的量表;探讨单一因素对孤独感的研究较多,多因素交互作用对孤独感的影响的较少;调查研究较多,追踪研究较少。今后,将创建适合我国本土化的儿童孤独感量表并注重横断与追踪研究相结合的方法,儿童孤独感将会趋于追踪研究的发展并会构建出适合我国儿童孤独感的干预方案。     

Directed movements and the body-proportion effect in preschool children's human figure drawing

Drawing a human figure involves mastery over complex planning problems. The variant forms which young children produce may be an index of these. The most common variant is the “tadpole figure” with arms seemingly on the head. It is known that children who spontaneously draw this variant will attach arms correctly to the trunk of an incomplete pre-drawn figure if the head is small, but will attach them to the head if that exceeds the trunk in size. The present study shows that this body-proportion effect cannot be reliably modified by directing the pen to the head or trunk for the purpose of drawing body-parts other than arms; and that the arms are much more subject to the effect than the legs, nose, navel or ears. Experimental analysis of drawing based on completion-tasks can in principle help to bring out, and put under stimulus-control, performance characteristics which cannot reliably be inferred from post-hoc inspection of spontaneous finished products.     

da Vinci's window facilitates drawings of total and partial occlusion in young children

When two or more objects are present in a scene, children 5 and 6 years of age rarely draw the scene such that one object totally or partially occludes another object. Instead they draw complete objects. The present study separated two components of drawing: perspective taking and graphic skill. Perspective taking was examined by comparing a free viewing condition with a restricted viewing condition in which a model could only be viewed through four apertures. Graphic skill was examined by comparing drawings requiring total occlusion with drawings requiring partial occlusion under both viewing conditions. Experiment 1 showed that 90% of 5- and 6-year-olds drew total occlusions under restricted viewing conditions but only 32% did so in the free viewing condition. Experiment 2 showed that drawings of partial occlusion were unaffected by viewing condition among 5-year-olds, but that restricted viewing increased the number of partial occlusions that 6-year-olds drew. Thus, failures of young children to draw occlusions have less to do with graphic skill than was previously thought. Instead, it is suggested that young children have a more general difficulty selecting one perspective and maintaining it over time.     

Representational change in resources for pictorial innovation: A three-component analysis

Representational development can be assessed by whether children can break routine procedures to draw something novel. Two resources for innovation have been canvassed: early capacity to be reactive to external models, and later flexibility enabling children to be proactive in the absence of models. We contend that available evidence on their relations is unclear, and that a third resource resides in children's use of their framework theory of possible objectives. In 5 experiments, children aged 5 and 9 years received open-ended challenges to alter their pictorial routines (draw à man who doesn't exist', ‘a man with something missing’); and specific tasks (draw a two-headed man, a headless man, a man without a trunk, a man who is both an animal and a man, a man who is both a house and a man, drawing-completion). Older children (a) made spontaneous innovations that were obtainable from younger children under specific instruction, (b) were relatively self-reliant where younger children relied more on external models, (c) did more advance planning, (d) monitored more closely their emerging drawing, and (e) often had greater awareness of what they did. It is argued that (a) use of external models plays an early inspirational role but also masks the extent of an internal resource, and (b) effective use of an internal resource occurs through monitoring how attainment approaches an objective set by the child's theory of pictures.     

The effect of affective characterizations on the size of children's drawings

Previous research has yielded conflicting findings about the existence and the direction of the size changes which occur in children's drawings when they are asked to draw topics which have been given an affective characterization. The present study was designed to investigate whether children scale up the size of drawings of topics which have been given a positive characterization, and scale down the size of drawings of topics which have been given a negative characterization. The participants were 258 children aged between 4 and 11 years who completed three drawings of either a man, a dog or a tree. Each child drew a baseline drawing of a neutrally characterized figure, and two further drawings of a positively and a negatively characterized version of the same figure. It was found that the children drew the positively characterized topics larger than the neutrally characterized topics, and reduced the size of the negatively characterized topics relative to the baseline drawings. These patterns occurred at all ages and with all three drawing topics. Two possible explanations of the findings are discussed: the operation of an appetitive‐defensive mechanism in children, and the acquisition of pictorial conventions.     

Draw It again Sam: the effect of drawing on children's suggestibility and source monitoring ability

Preschool children (aged 3 to 6 years) participated in a magic show. Later, the children were given repeated true and false reminders about the show. Half the children were asked to draw these true and false reminders (drawing condition) and half the children were asked questions about the reminders but not to draw them (question condition). Later, children in the drawing condition had better recall of true reminders than children in the question group; however, children in the drawing group also recalled more false reminders than children in the question group. Finally, although children in the drawing group had better memory of the source of the reminders than children in the question group, both groups equally reported that the false reminders actually happened.     

Horizontal Plane Head Stabilization During Locomotor Tasks

Frequency characteristics of head stabilization were examined during locomotor tasks in healthy young adults (N = 8) who performed normal walking and 3 walking tasks designed to produce perturbations primarily in the horizontal plane. In the 3 walking tasks, the arms moved in phase with leg movement, with abnormally large amplitude, and at twice the frequency of leg movement. Head-in-space angular velocity was examined at the predominant frequencies of trunk motion. Head movements in space occurred at low frequencies (< 4.0 Hz) in all conditions and at higher frequencies (> 4.0 Hz) when the arms moved at twice the frequency of the legs. Head stabilization strategies were determined from head-on-trunk with respect to trunk frequency profiles derived from angular velocity data. During natural walking at low frequencies (< 3.0 Hz), head-on-trunk movement was less than trunk movement. At frequencies 3.0 Hz or greater, equal and opposite compensatory movement ensured head stability. When arm swing was altered, compensatory movement guaranteed head stability at all frequencies. Head stabilization was successful for frequencies up to 10.0 Hz during locomotor tasks Maintaining head stability at high frequencies during voluntary tasks suggests that participants used feedforward mechanisms to coordinate head and trunk movements. Maintenance of head stability during dynamic tasks allows optimal conditions for vestibulo-ocular reflex function.     

The Importance of Modeling Method Effects: Resolving the (Uni)Dimensionality of the Loneliness Questionnaire

In this study, we tested whether children and young adults varied the size and color of their tree drawings based on hypotheses related to the emotional characterization of the drawn topic. We asked a sample of 80 5- to 11-year-old children and adults to draw a tree (baseline drawing) and then a happy versus sad tree from their imagination. Results indicate that size, but not color, is used to express emotion under free drawing conditions. We discuss implications for clinical psychologists and practitioners interpreting drawings of the tree.     

Constraints on the visual accuracy of drawings produced by young children

Errors made by young children when they are asked to draw a model were investigated in two studies. In the first study, the experimenter asked 5- and 8-year-old children to draw a cup that had a flower decal (transfer) attached to its outside surface, attached to its inside surface or positioned beside it. The 8-year-old children in all conditions produced visually accurate drawings. The 5-year-old children produced visually accurate drawings when the flower decal was positioned beside the cup and when the flower decal was attached to the inside surface of the cup but not when the flower decal was attached to the cup's outside surface. In the second study, 5- and 8-year-old children were asked to draw a cup that had either an intact or a broken handle. The handle area of the cup was either in view or not in view. The 5- and 8-year-old children performed comparably in this experiment. The children had difficulty producing accurate copies of the model only when the cup had a handle and the handle was not in view. Taken together, these studies indicate that 5-year-old children are more likely to produce visually accurate drawings than has previously been supposed. Difficulty in producing accurate drawings occurred when drawing rules and drawing conventions interfered with the task.