Perfectionistic Automatic Thoughts and Psychological Distress in Adolescents: An Analysis of the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory

The present paper examines a measure of perfectionistic automatic thoughts in terms of its psychometric properties and association with depression in adolescents. The Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI) was administered to two samples of adolescents. The first sample of adolescents (N?=?250) also completed measures of trait perfectionism and depression. The second sample of adolescents (N?=?105) completed these same measures as well as measures of negative automatic thoughts, positive automatic thoughts, self-criticism, and dependency. Psychometric analyses established that the PCI consists of one large factor with a high level of internal consistency. As expected, the PCI in adolescents was correlated significantly with trait measures of perfectionism, self-criticism, dependency, as well as general measures of automatic thoughts. Most importantly, a series of hierarchical regressions established that the PCI accounted for a significant degree of unique variance in depression, over and above the variance attributable to trait personality measures and negative automatic thoughts in general. Overall, the findings suggest perfectionistic automatic thoughts can be assessed in a reliable and valid manner in adolescents and that the experience of frequent, perfectionistic thoughts contributes uniquely to increased levels of psychological distress.     

Perfectionism and Psychological Distress: A Modeling Approach to Understanding their Therapeutic Relationship

The present study assessed the effectiveness of a web-based psycho-educational intervention protocol for decreasing levels of perfectionism and psychological distress. Different levels of therapeutic intervention (no treatment, general stress management intervention, general stress management intervention plus cognitive behavioral intervention) were provided to perfectionistic participants over a 10-week period. It was found via a longitudinal structural equation model that higher levels of therapeutic intervention predicted greater improvements in perfectionism and psychological distress. Further, amount of improvement in trait perfectionism and perfectionistic automatic thoughts was highly related to amount of improvement in psychological distress. The findings attest to the potential usefulness of a web-based intervention that combines a general stress management intervention with a cognitive behavioral intervention.     

Perfectionistic Automatic Thoughts,Trait Perfectionism,and Bulimic Automatic Thoughts in Young Women

The current research examined the associations among perfectionistic automatic thoughts, trait perfectionism, negative automatic thoughts, and bulimic automatic thoughts. A non-clinical sample of 94 undergraduate women completed the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire, and the Bulimic Automatic Thoughts Test. Correlational tests revealed that two automatic thoughts measures (perfectionistic automatic thoughts and negative automatic thoughts) and two trait perfectionism measures (self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism) were associated significantly with bulimic automatic thoughts with the strongest association being between perfectionistic automatic thoughts and bulimic automatic thoughts. Regression analyses showed that perfectionistic thoughts predicted unique variance in bulimic thoughts beyond variance attributable to trait perfectionism and negative automatic thoughts. The findings are discussed in terms of the need to incorporate an explicit focus on perfectionistic automatic thoughts into treatment interventions and conceptual models of perfectionism and eating disorders.     

Cognitive And Self-Regulation Aspects Of Perfectionism And Their Implications For Treatment: Introduction To The Special Issue

The current article provides an overview of the papers included in this special issue on the cognitive and self-regulation aspects of perfectionism and their implications for treatment. Themes expressed in these papers include the association between perfectionism and deficits in cognitive self-management, the significant link between distress and automatic thoughts reflecting the need to be perfect, the importance of examining mediators and moderators of the association between perfectionism and psychological distress, and the specific role of perfectionism in suicidal tendencies and self-harm. It is also argued that certain core features of perfectionism and its associated correlates tend to impede treatment progress. Central factors associated with perfectionism that have a deleterious impact on treatment progress include the fear of failure and fear of embarrassment and exposure, a punishing orientation toward the self, pessimism and hopelessness about the possibility of recovery, and a rigid adherence to unrealistic goals and standards, including goals for treatment and recovery. We describe case studies illustrating treatment resistance among perfectionists and we reiterate the growing need for empirical research on the efficacy of clinical interventions designed for perfectionists. This article was supported by major research grants from Health Canada and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada to the first two authors, and a Canada Research Chair in Personality & Health awarded to the first author.     

Perfectionism Cognitions, Rumination, and Psychological Distress

The current study examined the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with a ruminative response orientation and the experience of cognitive intrusions in response to stressful events. Our main goal was to test the hypothesis that individuals characterized by frequent automatic thoughts involving perfectionistic themes would also be characterized by a ruminative response orientation when distressed and they would report intrusive thoughts and images following the experience of a stressful event. A sample of 65 students completed several measures, including the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Response Styles Questionnaire, the Impact of Events Scale, and indices of depression and anxiety. Correlational analyses confirmed that high scores on the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory were correlated with a ruminative response orientation and the reported experience of intrusive thoughts and images following the experience of a stressful event. High levels of perfectionism cognitions, socially prescribed perfectionism, and rumination were also correlated with measures of depression and anxiety representingthe tripartite model. The results support the view that there is a salient cognitive aspect to perfectionism and the experience of frequent perfectionistic cognitions and related forms of rumination contribute to levels of psychological distress.     

Treatment Interventions for Perfectionism—A Cognitive Perspective: Introduction to the Special Issue

The current article provides an overview of the papers included in this special issue and includes a discussion of key issues pertaining to psychological treatments for perfectionism. We describe and review two new treatment intervention studies in this special issue that focus on perfectionism in university students as well as other contemporary research on the use of cognitive-behavioral therapy to treat perfectionists. While the significant reductions in levels of perfectionism as a result of treatment are noteworthy, we caution that perfectionism is a relatively enduring trait; thus, some perfectionists will remain treatment resistant and overall levels of perfectionism may remain relatively high even when significant improvements are realized. Moreover, we discuss the established tendency for perfectionism to be associated with residual symptoms of distress following treatment. As part of our discussion of the other articles in this special issue, we highlight cognitive factors of likely significance in the treatment of perfectionism, including the ruminative response style, the tendency to experience perfectionistic automatic thoughts, and the role of core irrational beliefs in the development of perfectionism. These articles underscore the need to consider key cognitive factors that are central to dysfunctional forms of perfectionism. This special issue on perfectionism is the third special issue on this topic to appear in the Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy under the editorialship of Windy Dryden. We are very grateful for the continuing opportunity in this journal to explore issues related to the cognitive and treatment aspects of perfectionism.     

Perfectionism and Deficits in Cognitive Emotion Regulation

The current study investigated the general hypothesis that perfectionists have deficits in cognitive emotion regulation. A sample of 100 students completed the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ), and a measure of depression. Correlational analyses revealed that frequent thoughts involving perfectionism were associated with maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation tendencies, including catastrophization, self-blame, rumination, and lack of positive reappraisal. Socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with the maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies of self-blame, catastrophization, and rumination, and it was correlated negatively with the adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies of putting into perspective and positive reappraisal. Trait self-oriented perfectionism was linked with self-blame. As expected, higher levels of depression were associated with perfectionism cognitions, socially prescribed perfectionism and deficits in cognitive emotion regulation. Our findings suggest the need for interventions designed to bolster the cognitive coping skills of at-risk perfectionists. This research was supported by a major research grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada. Gordon Flett was also supported by a Canada Research Chair in Personality and Health.     

Procrastination Automatic Thoughts as a Personality Construct: An Analysis of the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory

The present paper examines the nature of procrastination-related automatic thoughts by examining the correlates of the Procrastinatory Cognitions Inventory (PCI). The PCI was administered along with numerous other measures to three samples of students (two undergraduate samples and one graduate student sample). Analyses confirmed that the PCI is associated with elevated levels of neuroticism and low levels of conscientiousness but is a unique predictor of distress over and above the variance attributable to these broad personality traits. The PCI was associated significantly with negative automatic thoughts in general as well as automatic thoughts reflecting the need to be perfect. Tests of achievement goal orientation showed that students with high scores on the PCI are focused on performance avoidance goals. Elevated levels of procrastinatory cognitions among graduate students were associated with apprehension about writing, graduate student stress, low self-actualization, and feelings of being an impostor. Overall, the findings suggest that the experience of frequent procrastination-related thoughts contributes uniquely to increased levels of psychological distress and stress. Our findings point to the potential utility of incorporating an emphasis on procrastination cognitions when conducting assessments and when implementing cognitive-behavioral interventions focused on procrastination-related themes.     

Perfectionistic Self‐Presentation and Trait Perfectionism in Social Problem‐Solving Ability and Depressive Symptoms

This study examined social problem solving and perfectionistic self‐presentation, and assessed whether social problem solving mediates the association between perfectionism and depression. A sample of 200 community members completed measures of perfectionistic self‐presentation, trait perfectionism, social problem‐solving ability, and depression. Correlational analyses confirmed that perfectionistic self‐presentation and socially prescribed perfectionism are both associated with a negative problem‐solving orientation. Tests of mediating effects revealed that negative problem‐solving ability mediates the associations of socially prescribed perfectionism and perfectionistic self‐presentation with depressive symptoms, particularly among women. The findings support further exploration of mediational models linking perfectionism, problem‐solving ability, and depression and suggest that people who display high perfectionistic self‐presentation are particularly vulnerable to stress and distress and should benefit from problem‐solving training.     

A Meta‐analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism

The equivocal and debated findings from a 2007 meta‐analysis, which viewed perfectionism as a unidimensional construct, suggested that perfectionism was unrelated to procrastination. The present meta‐analysis aimed to provide a conceptual update and reanalysis of the procrastination–perfectionism association guided by both a multidimensional view of perfectionism and self‐regulation theory. The random‐effects meta‐analyses revealed a small to medium positive average effect size (r  = .23; k  = 43, N  = 10 000; 95% confidence interval (95% CI) [0.19, 0.27]) for trait procrastination and perfectionistic concerns and a small to medium negative average effect size (r  = ?.22; k  = 38, N  = 9544; 95% CI [?0.26, ?0.18]) for procrastination and perfectionistic strivings. The average correlations remained significant after statistically accounting for the joint variance between the two perfectionism dimensions via semi‐partial correlations. For perfectionistic concerns, but not perfectionistic strivings, the effects depended on the perfectionism measure used. All effects did not vary by the trait procrastination measure used or the respondent's sex. Our findings confirm that from a multidimensional perspective, trait procrastination is both positively and negatively associated with higher‐order perfectionism dimensions and further highlights the value of a self‐regulation perspective for understanding the cognitive, affective and behavioural dynamics that characterise these traits. Copyright © 2017 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Affect Intensity Contributes to Perfectionistic Self-presentation in Adolescents Beyond Perfectionism

Perfectionistic self-presentation in adolescents is associated with psychological maladjustment and distress. Yet, no study so far has investigated what personality characteristics contribute to perfectionistic self-presentation in adolescence. Using a cross-sectional correlational design with 119 adolescents aged 11–16 years, this study investigated how perfectionism (self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism) and affect intensity (positive affectivity, negative intensity, and negative reactivity) predicted individual differences in three modes of perfectionistic self-presentation: perfectionistic self-promotion, nondisplay of imperfection, and nondisclosure of imperfection. Results showed a unique prediction pattern for all three modes of perfectionistic self-presentation. Moreover, affect intensity contributed to perfectionistic self-presentation beyond perfectionism in two of the three modes. Perfectionistic self-promotion was predicted by high self-oriented perfectionism, high socially prescribed perfectionism, high positive affectivity, and low negative reactivity. In contrast, nondisplay of imperfection was predicted by high self-oriented perfectionism, high negative reactivity, and low positive affectivity. Nondisclosure of perfectionism was predicted by high socially prescribed perfectionism only. The findings suggest that affect intensity is a personality characteristic contributing to perfectionistic self-presentation in adolescence beyond perfectionism.     

Dimensions of Perfectionism and Anxiety Sensitivity

The current study investigated the extent to which dimensions of perfectionism are associated with components of the anxiety sensitivity construct. A sample of 177 undergraduate students completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale, and the Expanded Anxiety Sensitivity Index developed by Taylor and Cox (1998). The results confirmed that automatic thoughts involving perfectionism and the interpersonal aspects of the perfectionism construct are associated with anxiety sensitivity. Examination of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index factors showed that perfectionism cognitions were associated primarily with anxiety sensitivity involving fears of cognitive dyscontrol, while socially prescribed perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation were associated primarily with fears of publicly observable anxiety reactions in a manner suggesting that the interpersonal perfectionism dimensions are linked closely with an anxious sensitivity to negative social evaluation and subsequent panic attacks. The theoretical and treatment implications of the link between perfectionism and anxiety sensitivity are discussed.     

Perfectionism,Components of Stress Reactivity,and Depressive Symptoms

The current study examined the associations among dimensions of perfectionism, facets of stress reactivity, and self-reported depressive symptoms in 191 university students. Participants completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory, the Perceived Stress Reactivity Scale (PSRS), and a measure of depressive symptoms. The PSRS is a relatively new instrument that measures several distinguishable facets of stress reactivity including prolonged stress reactivity, reactivity to failure, and reactivity to social evaluation. Analyses confirmed that most of the perfectionism measures were associated with stress reactivity to failure experiences. Socially prescribed perfectionism and perfectionistic automatic thoughts were also associated with prolonged stress reactivity and reactivity to social evaluation. Moreover, all facets of stress reactivity were correlated with depressive symptoms. Finally, prolonged stress reactivity and reactivity to social evaluation mediated the links between perfectionism dimensions and depressive symptoms. The current findings provide general support for models of perfectionism and stress, and suggest that perfectionists have heightened sensitivities to stressors related to their self-definitions that are activated when threatening stressors involving these themes are experienced.     

Relationships between two dimensions of employee perfectionism,postwork cognitive processing,and work day functioning

This daily diary study examined relations between two distinct perfectionism dimensions and work-related cognitions experienced by employees during evening leisure time. Drawing from perseverative cognitive processing theory, we hypothesized that perfectionistic concerns would be related to work-related worry and rumination during post-work evenings. In contrast, we hypothesized that a theoretically more adaptive perfectionist dimension (perfectionistic strivings) would be associated with positively valenced self-reflections about work across consecutive evenings. A sample of 148 full-time workers completed an initial survey, which included a trait perfectionism measure, reported their work-related cognitions across four consecutive evenings of a working week, rated their sleep quality immediately upon awakening on each subsequent morning, and their daily levels of emotional exhaustion and work engagement at the end of each work day. Results showed that perfectionistic concerns were indirectly negatively associated with sleep quality and work day functioning via the tendency to worry and ruminate about work. In contrast, perfectionistic strivings were indirectly positively associated with work day engagement via the propensity to experience positive thoughts about work during evening leisure time. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Perfectionism,Distress, and Irrational Beliefs in High School Students: Analyses with an Abbreviated Survey of Personal Beliefs for Adolescents

The current study examined the associations between dimensions of perfectionism and irrational beliefs in an adolescent sample. In addition, we tested the association between psychological distress and irrational beliefs in adolescents and we evaluated the feasibility of creating a modified version of the Survey of Personal Beliefs for use with adolescents. A sample of 250 adolescents (108 males, 142 females) completed the Child-Adolescent Perfectionism Scale, the Survey of Personal Beliefs, and the CES-D Depression Scale. Initial psychometric analyses yielded an abbreviated 30-item Survey of Personal Beliefs with adequate internal consistency for four of the five subscales. Our results showed that self-oriented perfectionism was associated significantly with all five irrational belief subscales, while the associations between socially prescribed perfectionism and irrational belief subscales were much smaller in magnitude. Self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, and irrational beliefs were all associated significantly with elevated distress among adolescents, and irrational beliefs predicted unique variance in distress, over and above the variance attributable to the trait perfectionism dimensions. The findings confirmed the association between perfectionism and irrational beliefs and their respective roles in psychological distress among adolescents.     

Perfectionism and Sexual Satisfaction in Intimate Relationships

This study sought to provide information on the relations between trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation and sexual satisfaction in married couples. A sample of 74 married or cohabiting couples were recruited from the community to participate in the study. They completed measures of perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, sexual satisfaction, dyadic adjustment, and depression. The results showed that the interpersonal dimensions of trait perfectionism were negatively related to general sexual satisfaction and sexual satisfaction with the partner for both husbands and wives. After partialing out marital satisfaction and depression, the husband's sexual satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated with his own socially prescribed perfectionism and with his wife's ratings of other-oriented perfectionism. The wife's satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated both with her husband's socially prescribed perfectionism and with her own socially prescribed perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and perfectionistic self-presentation. Regression analyses suggest that the wife's other-oriented perfectionism is a unique predictor of her general lower sexual satisfaction and her husband's lower satisfaction with her contribution to the sexual relationship. Overall, the findings suggest that perfectionistic expectations have an important role to play in sexual satisfaction in married couples.     

心理病理学视野中的完美主义自我展示

完美主义自我展示是完美主义者在人际过程中为向他人展示自己非现实的、固定化的完美形象而进行的印象整饰过程。本文在简要阐述完美主义特征与澄清完美主义自我展示概念基础上,重点梳理和剖析了完美主义自我展示对抑郁、焦虑、社交恐惧、饮食障碍及人格障碍等常见心理病理现象的影响,并分析了其影响机制,最后,就深化该领域的研究提出了总结和展望。     

Exploring Domain‐Specific Perfectionism

ABSTRACT The main objective of this research was to explore the extent to which perfectionism is a general personality trait across areas of functioning rather than a context‐specific trait. The study also explored the degree to which domain‐specific contingent self‐worth, perceived competence, and task value were associated with domain‐specific perfectionism. In a sample of 187 academically talented youth, a comparison of perfectionistic tendencies and cognitive appraisal processes in the school versus sports domain revealed significantly higher levels of perfectionism, perceptions of competence, task value, and contingent self‐worth in the school domain. Hierarchical regression analysis showed a significant main effect for contingencies of self‐worth on perfectionistic tendencies in both the school and sports domains. The results argue for the centrality of contingent self‐worth to the understanding of perfectionism.     

Responsibility and perfectionism in OCD: an experimental study

Cognitive models of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) suggest a number of different variables that may play a role in the development and maintenance of obsessive compulsive symptoms [Freeston, M. H., Rhéaume, J., & Ladouceur, R. (1996) Correcting faulty appraisals of obsessional thoughts. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 433-446]. This study's aim was to verify the effect of perfectionism and excessive responsibility on checking behaviors and related variables. Twenty-four moderately perfectionistic subjects (MP) and 27 highly perfectionistic subjects (HP) were submitted to a manipulation of responsibility (low and high). After each manipulation, they had to perform a classification task during which checking behaviors were observed. Results indicate that more checking behaviors (hesitations, checking) occurred in the high responsibility condition than in the low responsibility condition for subjects of both groups. After executing the task in the high responsibility condition, HP subjects reported more influence over and responsibility for negative consequences than MP subjects. These results suggest that high perfectionistic tendencies could predispose individuals to overestimate their perceived responsibility for negative events. Furthermore, perfectionism could be conceived as playing a catalytic role in the perception of responsibility. Results are discussed according to cognitive models of OCD.     

Perfectionism,social problem-solving ability,and psychological distress

The present research examined the relation between dimensions of perfectionism and self-appraised problem-solving behaviors and attitudes. Specifically, in two separate studies, we tested the hypothesis that socially prescribed perfectionism (i.e., the perception that others demand perfection from the self) is associated with poorer social problem-solving ability. In addition, measures of psychological adjustment were included in Study 2 so that we could (1) examine whether socially prescribed perfectionism and poorer problem-solving ability were still associated after removing variance associated with psychological distress; and (2) compare depression and anxiety in terms of their respective associations with social problem-solving ability. Correlational analyses of the data from both studies confirmed that socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with more negative self-perceptions of problem-solving orientation, and that the link between socially prescribed perfectionism and negative perceptions of problem-solving orientation remains present after removing variance due to levels of negative affectivity. Both depression and anxiety were associated with a negative problem-solving orientation, but only depression was associated with more negative appraisals of actual problem-solving skills. The results suggest that perceived exposure to imposed standards of perfection undermines the problem-solving process and that individuals with high levels of socially prescribed perfectionism are particularly in need of counseling interventions designed to provide a more positive problem-solving orientation.This research was supported by grants #410-91-0856 and #410-93-1256 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1994 annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association in Providence, Rhode Island. The authors wish to thank Shawn Mosher for his assistance with the data collection.