Truthful yet misleading: Elementary second-order deception in school-age children and its sociocognitive correlates |
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| Affiliation: | 1. Department of Psychology, Babes-Bolyai University, 400015 Cluj-Napoca, Cluj, Romania;2. Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, 117570 Singapore, Singapore;3. Department of Social and Human Research, Romanian Academy, 400015 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;1. Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1Y2, Canada;2. Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H4A 3J1, Canada;3. Department of Psychology, John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, NY 10019, USA;1. Institute of Psychological Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311121, China;2. Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Research in Assessment of Cognitive Impairments, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310015, China;3. Center for Cognition and Disorders, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 311121, China;4. Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore;5. Center for Psychological Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310007, China;1. School of Pedagogical and Educational Sciences, Erasmus University Rotterdam, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands;2. Generation R Study Group, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands;3. Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus University Medical Center–Sophia Children’s Hospital, 3000 CB Rotterdam, The Netherlands;4. Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, 2333 AK Leiden, The Netherlands;5. Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition (LIBC), Leiden University, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands;6. Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri–St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63121, USA;7. Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands;8. Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands;9. Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands;10. Department of Radiology, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands;1. Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0G4, Canada;2. John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017, USA |
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| Abstract: | In highly competitive contexts, deceptive intentions might be transparent, so conveying only false information to the opponent can become a predictable strategy. In such situations, alternating between truths and lies (second-order lying behavior) represents a less foreseeable option. The current study investigated the development of 8- to 10-year-old children’s elementary second-order deception in relation to their attribution of ignorance (first- and second-order ignorance) and executive functions (inhibitory control, shifting ability, and verbal working memory). An adapted version of the hide-and-seek paradigm was used to assess children’s second-order lie-telling, in which children were asked to hide a coin in either of their hands. Unlike the standard paradigm, the opponent did not consistently look for the coin in the location indicated by the children, so children needed to switch between telling simple lies and truths (elementary second-order lies about the coin location) to successfully deceive the recipient. The results showed that older children were less likely to tell elementary second-order lies. However, across the sample, when children decided to lie, this ability was positively related to their second-order ignorance attribution and their verbal working memory. Moreover, we obtained preliminary evidence for the presence of a habituation effect in second-order lying, with children being more accurate and having less variability in their truthful-to-deceive responses (this being the more frequently elicited response) than when telling lies to deceive. Our findings could have implications for understanding the mechanisms underlying children’s ability to alternate between truths and lies to deceive. |
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| Keywords: | Second-order lying Second-order ignorance Verbal working memory School-age children Habituation effect |
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