Impact of Frame-of-Reference and Behavioral Observation Training on Alternative Training Effectiveness Criteria in a Canadian Military Sample

Past research suggests that specific, challenging goals lead to higher perfor- mance than do-your-best goals or easy goals in a variety of tasks, including negotiations. In the two studies reported here, we explored how seemingly appropriate goals may inhibit rather than facilitate performance. In Study 1, negotiators with challenging, specific goals failed to appropriately incorporate new information presented during a negotiation and consequently achieved poorer outcomes than negotiators with do-your-best goals. In Study 2, support was found for specific, challenging subordinate goals (separate goals for each issue) detrimentally focusing negotiators on the distributive dimension of nego- tiations, unlike their counterparts with superordinate goals (one goal encom- passing all issues). The implications of these findings for goal-setting theory are discussed.