Animal experimentation: The legacy of Claude Bernard

Claude Bernard, the father of scientific physiology, believed that if medicine was to become truly scientific, it would have to be based on rigorous and controlled animal experiments. Bernard instituted a paradigm which has shaped physiological practice for most of the twentieth century. In this paper we examine how Bernard's commitment to hypothetico‐de‐ductivism and determinism led to (a) his rejection of the theory of evolution; (b) his minimalization of the role of clinical medicine and epidemiological studies; and (c) his conclusion that experiments on non‐human animals were, “entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man”. We examine some negative consequences of Bernardianism for twentieth century medicine, and argue that physiology's continued adherence to Bernardianism has caused it to diverge from the other biological sciences which have become increasingly infused with evolutionary theory.