Trace loss and the recognition failure of unrecalled words

This paper addresses the phenomenon of recognition failure from the perspective of a theory in which recognition and recall are assumed to involve independent retrieval processes. However, even given independent retrieval, measures of recognition and recall success will covary if any traces are lost from storage, simply because such traces are unavailable for any memory test. In support of the theory, rote learning produced higher covariation between recognition and recall (i.e., fewer recognition failures) than did meaningful elaboration during study. Further, recognition and recall were approximately independent of each other with meaningful elaboration and imagery encoding, regardless of whether the latter involved interactive or separate images. The results of three experiments are discussed in terms of the present “vandal” theory and other theories of recognition failure.