Becoming a bartender: The role of external memory cues in a work-directed educational activity

Two kinds of external mnemonic cues are distinguished within the activity of becoming a bartender. Verbal mnemonic symbols (VMS) are materially arbitrary with respect to their referents. Material mnemonic symbols (MMS) bear a direct material relation to their referents. Both sets of cues are socially constituted. Combined ethnographic and experimental analyses indicate that external mnemonic cue use shifts from VMS, to MMS, to the use of neither with increasing experience. These shifts are interpreted within an activity theory framework as they occur in relation to the changing goals of becoming a bartender.