On genes,environments and human development: A commentary to Goossens

Using the example of adolescent loneliness, Goossens (this issue) presented an outline of integral research programmes in European developmental psychology. Integral research programmes should combine longitudinal analysis with state-of-the-art methods from the neurosciences and use the gene×environment approach to track differential susceptibility to the environment. In my commentary, I suggest using control variables in gene–environment studies to rule out spurious associations, to make the studies more developmentally sensitive, and to stress the need for replication of gene–environment findings. I offer two hypothetical models for developmentally sensitive gene–environment studies on adolescent loneliness, namely a social cognition model and a social rejection model.