The influence of proximal risk on the early development of the autonomic nervous system |
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| Institution: | 1. Rees Centre for Research in Fostering and Education, University of Oxford, Department of Education, 15 Norham Gardens, Oxford OX2 6PY, United Kingdom;2. School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QH, United Kingdom;1. Department of Applied Psychology, 246 Greene St, Kimball Hall, 8th floor, New York University, New York, NY 10003, United States;2. Department of Educational Psychology, 210 Education Building, 1310 S. Sixth Street, Champaign, IL 61820, United States;3. Center for Developmental Science, 100 E. Franklin St., CB8115, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 275992, United States;4. Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center, 521 S. Greensboro Street, CB 8185, United States;5. Department of Human Development and Family Studies, 110 Henderson South, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, United States;1. Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam/Sophia Children''s Hospital, Rotterdam, The Netherlands;2. Department of Child Development, Faculty of Psychology and Education, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands;3. Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands;4. Faculty of Social and Behavioral Science, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands;1. Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive N.W., Calgary, AB, Canada T2N 1N4;2. Faculties of Nursing & Medicine (Pediatrics & Psychiatry), University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive N.W., Calgary, AB, Canada T2N 1N4;3. Department of Pediatrics, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive N.W., Calgary, AB, Canada T2N 1N4;4. Alberta Children''s Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive N.W., Calgary, AB, Canada T2N 1N4 |
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| Abstract: | In this paper we review the evidence linking the early development of the autonomic nervous system in early childhood to four proximal risk factors: maternal stress during pregnancy, maternal substance use during pregnancy, poor-quality parent–child interactions, and specific disruptions in parenting behavior. A clear pattern of altered autonomic function emerges in children exposed to proximal risk, marked by reduced parasympathetic tone under conditions of both homeostasis and challenge, accompanied by increased sympathetic tone in some cases. This pattern of autonomic activity would support increased vigilance and active defense responses, which, in an environment of high proximal risk, may be adaptive in the short-term. However, in the long-term maintaining such a state may impose a high allostatic load. The current paper reviews and interprets the current literature and discusses future directions. |
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| Keywords: | Proximal risk Vagal tone Parasympathetic nervous system Sympathetic nervous system Prenatal stress Parent–child relationship |
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