The therapeutic and working alliances

Since their introduction, the concepts of the therapeutic alliance and the working alliance have provoked debate regarding the nature and function of these alliances and the applicability and validity of the concepts. Features of these concepts as originally put forth by Zetzel and Greenson, respectively, are delineated, with emphasis on the significant distinctions between them. Their relation to degree of psychopathology is examined, especially with respect to what may be understood as the more "silent" aspects of the therapeutic alliance. Mutual identification, empathy, and role-responsiveness are stressed as constituent features of the therapeutic alliance, with the working alliance seen as possible (theoretically and clinically) only after a therapeutic alliance has to some degree been established. Both alliances are understood as intrinsic structures within the analytic process, and illustrative case material is presented.