Varying the temporal placement of a drinking opportunity in a fixed-interval schedule.

Three rats, lever pressing for food delivered on a fixed-interval 128-s schedule, were presented with a 16-s opportunity to drink from a retractable water source. The temporal placement of the water probe within the reinforcement cycle was varied sequentially, in steps of 16 s. Although the lever-pressing pattern was modulated by the intercalated water probe, water consumption during the probe itself was a decreasing function of time from the following reinforcer. These results were interpreted as evidence against the notion that schedule-induced drinking is a "ubiquitous" phenomenon and are congruent with results from other "intruded stimulus" experiments.     

Economic substitutability of electrical brain stimulation, food, and water.

Concurrent variable-ratio schedules of electrical brain stimulation, food, and water were paired in various combinations as reinforcement of rats' lever presses. Relative prices of the concurrent reinforcers were varied by changing the ratio of the response requirements on the two levers. Economic substitutability, measured by the sensitivity of response ratio to changes in relative price, was highest with brain stimulation reinforcement of presses on both levers and lowest with food reinforcement of presses on one lever and water reinforcement of presses on the other. Substitutability with brain stimulation reinforcement of presses on one lever and either food or water reinforcement for presses on the other was about as high as with brain stimulation for presses on both levers. Electrical brain stimulation for rats may thus serve as an economic substitute for two reinforcers, neither of which is substitutable for the other.     

Cognitive computing models for estimation of reference evapotranspiration: A review

Irrigation practices can be advanced by the aid of cognitive computing models. Repeated droughts, population expansion and the impact of global warming collectively impose rigorous restrictions over irrigation practices. Reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) is a vital factor to predict the crop water requirements based on climate data. There are many techniques available for the prediction of ET₀. An efficient ET₀ prediction model plays an important role in irrigation system to increase water productivity. In the present study, a review has been carried out over cognitive computing models used for the estimation of ET₀. Review exhibits that artificial neural network (ANN) approach outperforms support vector machine (SVM) and genetic programming (GP). Second order neural network (SONN) is the most promising approach among ANN models.     

Separate neural sites for d-amphetamine suppression of mouse killing and feeding behavior in rats

The present study was conducted to investigate several possible neural sites for d-amphetamine's effect on mouse killing and feeding behaviors. d-Amphetamine (10, 20, and 30 μg) injected into each lateral ventricle, suppressed mouse kiling, food, and water intake in a dose-dependent manner. Bilateral adminstration of d-amphetamine (20 μg) into the central amygdaloid nucleus abolished mouse killing behavior but did not affect feeding and drinking. By contrast, bilateral amphetamine injections into the substantia nigra, or into the ventral region of the caudate nucleus, did not suppress mouse killing behavior, but significantly decreased food and water intake. The lateral hypothalamus was sensitive to d-amphetamine injections, which suppressed mouse killing and food intake as well as water intake. d-Amphetamine injections into the nucleus accumbens produced inconsistent effects on mouse killing and feeding. Our observations suggest a differentiation of the neural sites that mediate feeding from those underlying mouse killing behavior.     

Sex differences and estropausal phase effects on water maze performance in aged rats

An age-related decline in memory has been reported in male rats; however, there are few studies that have addressed these changes in aged female rats. In young female rats, hormonal cycles influence behavior. By the age of 22 months most female rats have not had regular hormonal cycles for at least 9 months. In the current study we examined how the hormonal status (persistent estrus and pseudo-pregnant) of the aged (22-24 months) female rat (Long Evans) influenced performance on a spatial version of the Morris water maze and compared this to aged male rats. Aged females in persistent estrus showed better performance on the water maze than both aged females that were pseudopregnant and aged males. Thus, postestropausal hormonal status may influence the course of aging in females.     

Contagion in the Representational Field of Water Recycling: Informing New Environment Practice Through Social Representation Theory

Water shortages in Australia have highlighted an urgent need for alternative water sources, and technologically, water recycling is argued to offer the most cost‐effective, environmentally sustainable solution to these shortages. Yet public support for its implementation is low even in the drought‐stricken areas of Australia. Drawing from the theory of social representations, this study addressed community perceptions of water recycling. Three interrelated methodologies were employed in a self‐report questionnaire. Individual difference scaling/multidimensional scaling analyses of three word association tasks revealed that the emergent social representation of water recycling was contradictory in affect. Normative responses indicated an awareness of the need to use recycled water whereas the functional responses were associated with a fear of contamination. An analysis of differential use scales further revealed that the perception of contagion was specific to when recycled water had contact with the body. The discursive analysis of respondents' comments expanded on both these findings. The study identified the themata of purity/impurity as underpinning the social understanding of water recycling. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Water as a Commons: An Exploratory Study on the Motives for Collective Action Among Italian Water Movement Activists

In many communities, supplying water and sanitation is a huge task, and the fact that these essential services can be carried out by the private sector is a debated issue. This article presents an exploratory study aimed to identify the range of motives for collective action shared by activists of the Italian Movement for ‘Public Water’. In‐depth interviews were conducted with 28 activists and were qualitatively analysed. Five main motivational categories emerged: defending the right to water, preserving community ties, opposing to the Government and ‘water sellers’, preserving the environment and money interests. Each motive is based on a specific representation of the issue of water and privatization process. Findings provide further support for the importance of moral convictions and sense of community in collective action development and suggest a critical reconsideration of the role played by collective efficacy. The results are discussed in the framework of the psychosocial literature on collective action and community psychology perspectives on participatory processes. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

No Time of Day Modulation or Time Stamp on Multiple Memory Tasks in Rats

Various demonstrations of “time stamp” effects in the animal learning literature have reinforced the idea that circadian information is encoded as part of a combined internal/external representation of context and that this contextual information is utilized for complex retrieval processes supporting memory. The goal of the present series of experiments is to assess this idea by manipulating training/testing circadian times on a battery of learning and memory tasks commonly used in the rodent. The data obtained from five experiments using four different learning and memory paradigms provide no evidence for “time stamp” effects on place memory, context memory (aversive or appetitive), or S-R habit learning.     

罚款对城市居民个人用水行为的影响

以城市居民用水两难情景为实验任务,探讨了处罚（罚款）对城市居民个人用水行为的影响。结果表明：相对只是对违规的个体进行处罚的方式,个体一群体其他成员处罚的方式更能约束人们的不良行为发生相对于现行水价标准,5．4元的超水高额处罚标准很可能是人们的一个心理接受节点,高于该金额的水费处罚标准人们可能将难以接受。     

Environmental cue saliency influences the vividness of a remote spatial memory in rats

The Morris water maze is frequently used to evaluate the acquisition and retrieval of spatial memories. Few experiments, however, have investigated the effects of environmental cue saliency on the strength or persistence of such memories after a short vs. long post-acquisition interval. Using a Morris water maze, we therefore tested in rats the effect of the saliency of distal cues on the vividness of a recent (5 days) vs. remote (25 days) memory. Rats trained in a cue-enriched vs. a cue-impoverished context showed a better overall level of performance during acquisition. Furthermore, the probe trials revealed that the rats trained and tested in the cue-impoverished context (1) spent less time in the target quadrant at the 25-day delay, and (2) swam shorter distances in the target area, with fewer crossings at both 5- and 25-day delays, as compared to their counterparts trained and tested in the cue-enriched context. Thus, the memory trace formed in the cue-enriched context shows better resistance to time, suggesting an implication of cue saliency in the vividness of a spatial memory.