勿以恶小而为之：滑坡效应的心理机制及预防策略

滑坡效应是指个体的不道德程度有随时间推移而逐渐加剧的倾向, 即不道德行为具有反复性和渐进性。它广泛存在于个体自身层面以及人际互动过程中, 会影响个体正常社会交往, 甚至阻碍社会和谐健康发展。滑坡效应的研究方式包括实验者操纵法和自发性欺骗法, 心理机制包括道德推脱、内隐偏差、自我非人化等, 对应的干预措施包括提升预防定向动机和塑造积极的描述性社会规范。未来研究可从心理过程和生理机制的角度进一步探讨滑坡效应的适用范围、神经干预方式等。     

On the statistical and theoretical basis of signal detection theory and extensions: Unequal variance, random coefficient, and mixture models

Basic results for conditional means and variances, as well as distributional results, are used to clarify the similarities and differences between various extensions of signal detection theory (SDT). It is shown that a previously presented motivation for the unequal variance SDT model (varying strength) actually leads to a related, yet distinct, model. The distinction has implications for other extensions of SDT, such as models with criteria that vary over trials. It is shown that a mixture extension of SDT is also consistent with unequal variances, but provides a different interpretation of the results; mixture SDT also offers a way to unify results found across several types of studies.     

Living on a Slippery Slope

Our actions, individually and collectively, inevitably affect others, ourselves, and our institutions. They shape the people we become and the kind of world we inhabit. Sometimes those consequences are positive, a giant leap for moral humankind. Other times they are morally regressive. This propensity of current actions to shape the future is morally important. But slippery slope arguments are a poor way to capture it. That is not to say we can never develop cogent slippery slope arguments. Nonetheless, given their most common usage, it would be prudent to avoid them in moral and political debate. They are often fallacious and have often been used for ill. They are normally used to defend the moral status quo. Even when they are cogent, we can always find an alternate way to capture their insights. Finally, by accepting that the moral roads on which we travel are slippery, we become better able to successfully navigate them.     

释《周易·渐卦》

通过对渐卦卦象的分析,并考《说文》段注“陂陀曰渐”,得出渐卦取名为渐,当取坡渐之意,进而引伸为渐进之意。又从卦爻象出发,对渐卦的卦爻辞作出分析,认为渐卦的卦爻辞是根据其卦爻象而系出,而且其整卦的卦爻辞都是围绕着一个中心主题而展开,且其思想与《诗经》中的《鸿雁》等篇不无关系。这或可为进一步解读《周易》古经及其产生时代问题提供某种有益的启示。     

数量化维度特征搜索的影响因素探索

有关数量化维度特征搜索的研究表明 ,目标搜索斜率 (反应时间对呈现项目数量函数的斜率 )是由目标与干扰子之间的差异决定的 ,然而以往研究中其差异的值取决于具体的实验条件。根据韦伯定律 ,笔者推测 ,目标搜索斜率应由目标与干扰子之间的相对差异 (C)决定 ,C为目标值 (T)与干扰子值 (D)的差值与该干扰子值的比值。当C值对应相等时 ,不同几何形状刺激的目标搜索斜率应无差异。为此笔者分别采用圆 (实验一 )和三角形 (实验二 )进行实验研究。实验结果支持了上述假设 ,并发现目标大于干扰子时的目标搜索斜率对C值的函数是单调递减函数     

Two arguments against lying

Kant and Sidgwick are at opposite extremes on whether we may tell paternalistic lies. I trace the extremism to their views about ethical concepts. Sidgwick thinks fundamental ethical concepts must be precise. Common Sense morality says we may tell paternalistic lies to children but not to sane adults. Because the distinction between a child and an adult is imprecise, Sidgwick thinks this principle cannot be fundamental, and must be based on the (precise) principle of utility, which often mandates paternalistic lies to adults. Kant thinks that ethical concepts are ideals of reason, which do not fit the world precisely because the world is imperfect. We lie to children and the insane because they are irrational, but no one is perfectly rational. We must treat all persons with the respect due to rational agents, so the pressure of the theory is toward not lying to anyone. Decisions about where to draw the line must be made pragmatically and to some extent arbitrary. But fear of this is not a good reason to abandon ethical ideals for utilitarianism.     

Human performance on negative slope schedules of points exchangeable for money: a failure of molar maximization

Panel pressing was generated and maintained in 5 adult humans by schedules of points exchangeable for money. Following exposure to a variable-interval 30-s schedule and to a linear variable-interval 30-s schedule (which permitted points to accumulate in an unseen "store" in the absence of responding), subjects were exposed to a series of conditions with a point-subtraction contingency arranged conjointly with the linear variable-interval schedule. Specifically, points were added to the store according to the linear-variable interval 30-s schedule and were subtracted from the store according to a ratio schedule. Ratio value varied across conditions and was determined individually for each subject such that the subtraction contingency would result in an approximately 50% reduction in the rate of point delivery. Conditions that included the subtraction contingency were termed negative slope schedules because the feedback functions were negatively sloped across all response rates greater than the inverse of the variable-interval schedule, in this case, two per minute. Overall response rates varied inversely with the subtraction ratio, indicating sensitivity to the negative slope conditions, but were in excess of that required by accounts based on strict maximization of overall reinforcement rate. Performance was also not well described by a matching-based account. Detailed analyses of response patterning revealed a consistent two-state pattern in which bursts of high-rate responding alternated with periods of prolonged pausing, perhaps reflecting the joint influence of local and overall reinforcement rates.     

Conditional Direction Dependence Analysis: Evaluating the Causal Direction of Effects in Linear Models with Interaction Terms

Abstract

Direction dependence analysis (DDA) makes use of higher than second moment information of variables (x and y) to detect potential confounding and to probe the causal direction of linear variable relations (i.e., whether x?→?y or y?→?x better approximates the underlying causal mechanism). The “true” predictor is assumed to be a continuous nonnormal exogenous variable. Existing methods compatible with DDA, however, are of limited use when the relation of a focal predictor and an outcome is affected by a moderator. This study presents a conditional direction dependence analysis (CDDA) framework which enables researchers to evaluate the causal direction of conditional regression effects. Monte–Carlo simulations were used to evaluate two different moderation scenarios: Study 1 evaluates the performance of CDDA tests when a moderator affects the strength of the causal effect x?→?y. Study 2 evaluates cases in which the causal direction itself (x?→?y vs y?→?x) depends on moderator values. Study 3 evaluates the robustness of DDA tests in the presence of functional model misspecifications. Results suggest that significance tests compatible with CDDA are suitable in both moderation scenarios, i.e., CDDA allows one to discern regions of a moderator in which the causal direction is uniquely identifiable. An empirical example is provided to illustrate the approach.     

Evaluating the Meta-Slope: Is there a Slippery Slope Argument against Slippery Slope Arguments?

Slippery slope arguments (SSAs) have often been viewed as inherently weak arguments, to be classified together with traditional fallacies of reasoning and argumentation such as circular arguments and arguments from ignorance. Over the last two decades several philosophers have taken a kinder view, often providing historical examples of the kind of gradual change on which slippery slope arguments rely. Against this background, Enoch (2001, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 21(4), 629–647) presented a novel argument against SSA use that itself invokes a slippery slope. Specifically, he argued that the very reasons that can make SSAs strong arguments mean that we should be poor at abiding by the distinction between good and bad SSAs, making SSAs inherently undesirable. We argue that Enoch’s meta-level SSA fails on both conceptual and empirical grounds.