试析德国纳粹人体实验的道德逻辑

德国纳粹人体实验与德国现代伦理思想中的超人道德和种族主义思想密切相关。超人道德是纳粹人体实验的“意志-伦理”基础,种族主义则是纳粹人体实验的“科学—伦理”依据。     

Computer simulations as experiments

Whereas computer simulations involve no direct physical interaction between the machine they are run on and the physical systems they are used to investigate, they are often used as experiments and yield data about these systems. It is commonly argued that they do so because they are implemented on physical machines. We claim that physicality is not necessary for their representational and predictive capacities and that the explanation of why computer simulations generate desired information about their target system is only to be found in the detailed analysis of their semantic levels. We provide such an analysis and we determine the actual consequences of physical implementation for simulations. A. Barberousse, S. Franceschelli and C. Imbert have contributed equally to this work.     

A direct test of the original version of regret theory

This paper reports on a direct experimental test of the original version of Regret Theory using a total of 64 subjects in three groups. The experiment, which was run on PCs, was designed to elicit from subjects' responses the two key elements in this theory: namely the basic utility function, and the regret/rejoicing function. It was also designed to provide a quick direct test of the implications of the theory. We found that the evidence refuted this original version of Regret Theory.     

Why experiments matter*

Experimentation is traditionally considered a privileged means of confirmation. However, why and how experiments form a better confirmatory source relative to other strategies is unclear, and recent discussions have identified experiments with various modeling strategies on the one hand, and with ‘natural’ experiments on the other hand. We argue that experiments aiming to test theories are best understood as controlled investigations of specimens. ‘Control’ involves repeated, fine-grained causal manipulation of focal properties. This capacity generates rich knowledge of the object investigated. ‘Specimenhood’ involves possessing relevant properties given the investigative target and the hypothesis in question. Specimens are thus representative members of a class of systems, to which a hypothesis refers. It is in virtue of both control and specimenhood that experiments provide powerful confirmatory evidence. This explains the distinctive power of experiments: although modelers exert extensive control, they do not exert this control over specimens; although natural experiments utilize specimens, control is diminished.     

Personhood: Elusive But Not Illusory

Bioethics as a field has been fortunate that its values and concerns have mirrored the values and concerns of society. In light of the September 11th attacks, it is possible that we are witnessing the beginning of a transition in American culture, one fraught with implications for bioethics. The emphasis on autonomy and individual rights may come to be tempered by greater concern over the collective good. Increased emphasis on solidarity over autonomy could greatly alter public response to research abuses aimed at defense from bioterrorism, to privacy of genetic information, and to control of private medical resources to protect the public health.     

Generality, repetition, and the role of descriptive learning models

Previous studies of learning in certain classes of games appear to lead to inconsistent conclusions. Studies that focus on the observed sequential changes in behavior support models that imply high-action inertia and allow for different parameters in different games. Studies that use simulation-based analysis and focus on the prediction of behavior in new games support models that imply little-action inertia, and demonstrate the value of models that assume general parameters over certain classes of games. We show that this apparent inconsistency emerges even when analyzing a large data set with a single model. We then show that the inconsistency between the two analyses can be a product of the tendency by subjects to repeat past choices.     

A tale of two methods

Simulations (both digital and analog) and experiments share many features. But what essential features distinguish them? I discuss two proposals in the literature. On one proposal, experiments investigate nature directly, while simulations merely investigate models. On another proposal, simulations differ from experiments in that simulationists manipulate objects that bear only a formal (rather than material) similarity to the targets of their investigations. Both of these proposals are rejected. I argue that simulations fundamentally differ from experiments with regard to the background knowledge that is invoked to argue for the “external validity” of the investigation.     

Shape‐ and Trait‐Congruency: Using Appearance‐based Cues as a Basis for Product Recommendations

This research demonstrates that a consumer's physical appearance—and, more specifically, his or her body size—predictably influences the product(s) that the consumer is recommended. Four studies conducted in both field and lab settings show that agents more frequently recommend round (vs. angular) shaped products to heavier targets, notably for products and categories in which body size is irrelevant (e.g., lamps and perfume). We attribute this to a combination of shape‐congruency and trait‐congruency, whereby individuals choose products for others based on shared dimensions of the person and product.