Evaluating pedestrian interaction preferences with a game theoretic autonomous vehicle in virtual reality

Localisation and navigation of autonomous vehicles (AVs) in static environments are now solved problems, but how to control their interactions with other road users in mixed traffic environments, especially with pedestrians, remains an open question. Recent work has begun to apply game theory to model and control AV-pedestrian interactions as they compete for space on the road whilst trying to avoid collisions. But this game theory model has been developed only in unrealistic lab environments. To improve their realism, this study empirically examines pedestrian behaviour during road crossing in the presence of approaching autonomous vehicles in more realistic virtual reality (VR) environments. The autonomous vehicles are controlled using game theory, and this study seeks to find the best parameters for these controls to produce comfortable interactions for the pedestrians. In a first experiment, participants’ trajectories reveal a more cautious crossing behaviour in VR than in previous laboratory experiments. In two further experiments, a gradient descent approach is used to investigate participants’ preference for AV driving style. The results show that the majority of participants were not expecting the AV to stop in some scenarios, and there was no change in their crossing behaviour in two environments and with different car models suggestive of car and last-mile style vehicles. These results provide some initial estimates for game theoretic parameters needed by future AVs in their pedestrian interactions and more generally show how such parameters can be inferred from virtual reality experiments.     

Autonomous vehicle safety: Understanding perceptions of pedestrians and bicyclists

Autonomous vehicle (AV) technologies have been rapidly advancing. One benefit of AVs is that the technology could eliminate many driver errors and also mitigate many pedestrian and bicyclist collisions. Real-world AVs have been tested in many cities. Five companies are running around 50 AVs in Pittsburgh, following the autonomous testing guidelines. BikePGH, a non-profit organization located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania conducted a follow-up survey in 2019 (the first survey was conducted in 2017) to understand non-motorists’ opinions of AVs. This study examined how pedestrians and bicyclists perceived AV safety based on their understanding and experiences. At first, this study performed a comparison group test to determine which questions vary by participants’ AV safety rating. The responses were later analyzed with a data mining method known as ‘association rules mining.’ A new performance measure, known as the rule power factor, was then used to identify the significant patterns in the form of rules. The participants also provided their thoughts in responses to the open-ended questions. Using Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), a topic modeling algorithm, 40 topic models were developed based on five open-ended questions. The findings show that the non-motorists showed comparatively fewer negative opinions towards AVs than positive assessments. The results also show that perception patterns vary by the participant’s rating on AV safety. Findings of this study would be beneficial for the AV stakeholders in making AVs and roadways safer for non-motorists.     

Trust and intention to use autonomous vehicles: Manufacturer focus and passenger control

Autonomous Vehicle (AV) research has focused on public acceptance of and intention to use AVs, with trust emerging as important to these variables. Research on AV trust has centered on trust in vehicle performance. However, trust evaluation may include AV manufacturers and developers, and regulation pertaining to AVs; thus, we expand our measurement of trust to include beliefs based on manufacturers and regulation. In this experiment, we manipulate information regarding manufacturer focus (i.e., an emphasis on standards, regulations, and research (SRR) versus speed to market) to determine its effect on trust. When information focused on SRR, we found higher levels of trust in AV performance and in manufacturers, compared to when it focused on speed to market. In addition, information regarding passenger control (i.e., the ability to take over for the vehicle and to determine privacy settings) was manipulated to yield either high or low passenger control conditions. Behavioral Intention (BI) to use AVs was lowest when speed to market was emphasized and when passenger control was low. Furthermore, trust was tested as a mediator between perceived risk and BI. Trust in AV performance partially mediated the relationship between perceived AV performance risk and BI. In addition, trust in AV regulation partially mediated the relationship between AV privacy/security risk and BI. Researchers should continue to examine trust beyond the AV itself to encompass trust in manufacturers and regulations. Those designing and marketing AVs should carefully consider decisions that influence manufacturer/developer reputation and passenger control due to their effect on intention to use AVs.     

Factors influencing public awareness of autonomous vehicles: Empirical evidence from Brisbane

Growing concerns, regarding transport disadvantage and increased socioeconomic disparities, demand innovative ways to improve equity and make transportation systems smarter. One of the most anticipated developments within the field of smart mobility is driving automation systems. Autonomous vehicles (AVs) have the potential to improve accessibility, affordability, safety and efficiency of transport systems, but come with risks including the intensification of private vehicle travel. Understanding public awareness is an important step to determine whether motivation and intention to use AVs will impact on its potential. This paper aims to investigate factors influencing public awareness of AVs as a solution to transport disadvantage. The study applies an ordinal logistic regression analysis to analyse survey data collected from the residents of Brisbane (Australia). Our findings reveal that awareness is positively correlated within young and middle-aged adults, low-income residents, disability, public transport users, and those who feel unsafe on public transport, while an increase in the number of household vehicles is negatively correlated. The study provides insights into public awareness towards the potential benefits of AVs, and highlights potential opportunities and challenges associated with these expectations.     

Willingness of people who are blind to accept autonomous vehicles: An empirical investigation

Attitudes of a sample of 211 UK people who are blind concerning autonomous vehicles (AVs), and the determinants of the willingness of people who are blind to travel in AVs, were examined. Participants answered an open-ended question regarding their attitudes towards level 5 AVs and the results were analysed using a semi-automated structural topic modelling procedure. (Level 5 AVs are fully autonomous anywhere, and do not require controlled areas in which to operate.) Four “topics” emerged from the exercise: (i) “hope” for future independence and freedom to travel offered by AVs to people who are blind, (ii) scepticism that AVs will ever be configured to meet the needs of people who are blind, (iii) concerns over safety, and (iv) the affordability of AVs. The four topics were employed as mediating variables in a structural equation model designed to explain the respondents’ willingness to travel in an AV. A number of covariates were presumed to influence the four mediating topics, including a participant’s desire for independence, comorbidity, locus of control, and level of generalised anxiety. Three of the mediating variables exerted significant influences on willingness to travel in an AV, i.e., hope for future independence, misgivings about safety, and affordability. Scepticism about AVs did not have a significant effect. Several implications for AV design and for the creation of public information messages promoting AVs are suggested. In particular, public information campaigns should emphasise the freedom to travel that AVs will provide for people who are blind; reassurances concerning safety; and the inevitability of AVs appearing on the roads of economically developed countries.     

A focus group study on the potential of autonomous vehicles as a viable transportation option: Perspectives from people with disabilities and public transit agencies

Autonomous vehicle (AV) technology is becoming one of the most promising alternatives to improve mobility for people with disabilities. Nevertheless, how people with disabilities perceive AV as transportation services has not been explored. Also, limited information exists about how public transit agencies comprehend and perceive autonomous vehicle transportation (AVT) services. This study discusses mobility issues for people with disabilities and explores the potential of AVT to serve that population, particularly those with visual impairments or physical disabilities. Researchers conducted six focus groups comprising people with disabilities (N = 23) and public transit service experts (N = 10) in Austin, Texas and Houston, Texas. Each session was audio-recorded and analyzed using conventional content analysis. This study identified people with disabilities’ mobility issues related to: (1) current transit services (including fixed-route and paratransit services) and (2) the quality of neighborhood built environments. Both people with disabilities and transit experts expected that AVT could mitigate current mobility issues, especially in improved built environments. However, participants with disabilities also expressed concerns and anxieties regarding AVT. Transit experts agreed that more targeted strategies would be needed to overcome possible barriers to AVT for people with disabilities. This study provides insights on shaping AVT strategies and policies relevant to improving mobility for people with disabilities.     

The TROCA Project: An autonomous transportation robot controlled by a cognitive architecture

Autonomous mobile robots emerged as an important kind of transportation system in warehouses and factories. In this work, we present the use of MECA cognitive architecture in the development of an artificial mind for an autonomous robot responsible for multiple tasks, including transportation of packages along a factory floor, environment exploration, warehouse inventory, its internal energy management, self-monitoring and dealing with human operators and other robots. The present text provides a detailed specification for the architecture and its software implementation. Future work will present the simulation results under different configurations, together with a detailed analysis of the architecture performance and its generalization for autonomous robot control.     

Need fulfillment and motivation in physical education predict trajectories of change in leisure-time physical activity in early adolescence

ObjectivesWe examined (1) how psychological need fulfillment and motivation in physical education and leisure-time physical activity change during early adolescence, and (2) the degree to which need fulfillment and motivation predict trajectories of change in physical activity.DesignLongitudinal survey.MethodsStudents (N = 134, ages 10–13 years) completed surveys assessing perceived competence, autonomy, relatedness, intrinsic motivation, and identified, introjected, and external regulations in physical education, and leisure time physical activity each semester in school for 3 years.ResultsUnconditional growth models showed an average increase in physical activity. Competence also increased, while autonomy and relatedness, and identified and introjected regulation decreased. Conditional models showed that students with higher levels of autonomy, relatedness, intrinsic motivation, and identified regulation had higher levels of physical activity at baseline and throughout the study. Students with lower levels of autonomy, relatedness, intrinsic motivation, and identified regulation experienced significantly greater increases in physical activity, but these effects were very small.ConclusionsNeed fulfillment and motivation variables positively predict physical activity. While youth with lower levels of need fulfillment and motivation have lower levels of physical activity, they also tend to increase physical activity levels more across early adolescence. These associations highlight how physical education experiences in early adolescence may influence change in physical activity, and suggest efforts to foster need fulfillment and autonomous regulation in physical education may promote physical activity.     

Moral disengagement mechanisms in interactions of human drivers with autonomous vehicles: Validation of a new scale and relevance with personality,driving style and attitudes

The introduction of autonomous vehicles (AVs) in the road transportation systems raises questions with respect to their interactions with human drivers’, especially during the early stages. Issues such as unfamiliarity or false assumptions regarding the timid and safe behaviour of AVs could potentially result in undesirable human driver behaviours, for instance “testing” AVs or being aggressive towards them. Among other factors, morality has been determined as a source of aggressive driving behaviour. Following previous approaches on moral disengagement, the current paper argues that moral standards during interactions of human drivers with AVs could potentially blur, leading to the disengagement of self-regulation mechanisms of moral behaviour. The study investigates the impact of moral disengagement on the intention of human drivers to be aggressive towards AVs. To that end, an online survey was conducted including a newly developed survey of moral disengagement, adapted to the context of AVs. Moreover, measures of personality, driving style, attitudes towards sharing the road with AVs and perceived threats were collected. A confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the concept of moral disengagement in the context of AVs. Moreover, relationships between personality, driving style and attitudes towards sharing the road with AVs were found, via a structural equation modelling approach (SEM). The results could have implications in the future driver training and education programmes, as it might be necessary to not only focus on driving skills but also on the development of procedural skills that will improve the understanding of AVs’ capabilities and ensure safer interactions. Efforts on improving attitudes towards AVs may also be necessary for improving human driver behaviour.     

Handing control back to drivers: Exploring the effects of handover procedure during transitions from Highly Automated Driving

The operational capabilities of automated driving features are limited and sometimes require drivers’ intervention through a transition of control. Assistance at an operational level might be extremely beneficial during transitions but the literature lacks evidence on the topic. A simulator study was conducted to investigate the potential impacts that lateral assistance systems might have while the Automated Driving System (ADS) hands back control to the driver. Results showed that drivers benefitted from a strong Lane Keeping Assist during the first phase of the transfer, helping them to keep the lane centre. However, assisting the drivers at an operational level did not enhance their capability of addressing a more complex task, presented as a lane change. In fact, it was more task-specific assistance (Blind-spot assist) that allowed drivers to better cope with the tactical decision that the lane change required. Moreover, longer exposure to lane-keeping assist systems helped them in gaining awareness of the surrounding traffic and improved the way drivers interacted with the Blind-spot assist.