Expected consequences of anger‐related behaviours

In a study with 140 participants (66 men, 74 women), we investigated behaviour outcome expectancies (cognitive, affective and relational) regarding a broad group of anger‐related behaviours (e.g. hit someone, run away). Results of a three‐mode component analysis indicated that behaviour outcome expectancies vary considerably, depending on the behaviour (aggressive versus nonaggressive ones), the consequence (consequences related to the self versus consequences for the anger) and the individual. The findings are discussed in the context of catharsis theory, emotion regulation and functionalistic accounts of emotion‐related behaviour. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

TEMPORAL RELATIONSHIPS IN LANGUAGE1

Bref exposé d'une approche piagétienne à L'étude de L'acquisition du langage. Certains principes de base de la psychologie génétique qui s'appliquent également à ce domaine sont rappelés. La méthode d'interrogation qui en découle est présentée ainsi que les raisons qui ont amené les auteurs à envisager L'étude de L'acquisition de certaines structurations linguistiques à travers des épreuves de compréhension, de production et de répétition. La technique a pour but de saisir les changements qualitatifs dans les réponses des enfants (de 4 à 9 ans), dont on connaît le niveau de développement cognitif, déterminé par des épreuves propres à la psychologie génétique. A titre d'exemple une recherche récente est brièvement discutée. Elle porte sur la compréhension, la production et la répétition de phrases qui expriment une relation d'ordre temporel entre deux événements. L'accent est mis sur les résultats obtenus dans les épreuves de production qui sont les plus révélateurs du mode d'élaboration de cette structuration. Quelques particularités des réponses sont relevées, qui indiquent L'importance prêtée par les sujets aux valeurs aspectuelles des formes verbales. Une interprétation qui tient compte des données de la psychologie génétique est proposée.     

A Taxonomy of Anger-Related Behaviors in Young Adults

In 2 studies, we investigated the occurrence of anger-related behaviors and their relationship to emotional, performance-related, and situational variables. In the first study, we constructed a comprehensive taxonomy of behaviors associated with anger, and we examined the occurrence of the resulting behavior categories as a function of several independent variables. A total of 8 distinct behavior categories were identified, 3 aggressive and 5 nonaggressive. Our results also demonstrated that fight (including both verbal and physical aggression) and flight behaviors occurred most frequently. Physical aggression, however, occurred most frequently in an inhibited form, in response to the emotion of anger (as compared to the emotion of irritation), and when the anger was intense. A second study was conducted to replicate and extend the findings of Study 1. The results suggest that the taxonomy, as derived in Study 1, is comprehensive and allows for a reliable categorization. Moreover, it appeared that fight and flight behaviors occurred most frequently if the target at whom one is angry was present. The following reduction rules were used: (a) responses that differed only in the order of the words were put together; (b) singular and plural items were joined; (c) responses that differed only in verbs such as “to be,” “to become” or “to do” were grouped together; (d) responses that differed only syntactically (verb, noun or adjective) were grouped together; (e) responses that differed only with respect to an article, a preposition, or a possessive word were grouped together; (f) and a few specific rules were used (e.g., yourself = myself; self = auto). The complete coding manual is available upon request from the first author. This number differed across proportions because it depended on the number of participants assigned to each of the experimental questionnaires. Our initial analyses contained a participant-specific random intercept, so as to take into account individual differences in the propensity to use each of the behavior categories. Inclusion of a random intercept appeared to yield a significant improvement in model fit for two of the eight behavior categories. However, because analyses with a random and with a fixed intercept yielded similar conclusions, we decided to select the most parsimonious model, namely the one without a random intercept. The total number of participant–performance–instrumentality combinations equals 504 (i.e., 84×6) because all 84 participants had to answer six questions.     

Intensity profiles of emotional experience over time

A full understanding of emotions and emotion characteristics can only be reached when their dynamic nature is taken into account. As such, a primary objective of the present study is to describe and account for variability in temporal profiles of experienced emotional intensity. Participants were asked to make detailed drawings of intensity profiles of recently experienced episodes of anger, sadness, joy and affection. Functional data analysis revealed three features that together accounted for 84% of the total variability: (i) steepness at onset; (ii) skewness; and (iii) the number of peaks. Emotions differed with regard to the first two features, with the rise at onset being steeper for sadness and joy and affection being the most negatively skewed emotion under study. Individual differences regarding each of the three features were found, however, they did not strongly generalise across emotions.     

CaMeRa: A Computational Model of Multiple Representations

This research aims to clarify, by constructing and testing a computer simulation, the use of multiple representations in problem solving, focusing on their role in visual reasoning. The model is motivated by extensive experimental evidence in the literature for the features it incorporates, but this article focuses on the system's structure. We illustrate the model's behavior by simulating the cognitive and perceptual processes of an economics expert as he teaches some well-learned economics principles while drawing a graph on a blackboard. Data in the experimental literature and concurrent verbal protocols were used to guide construction of a linked production system and parallel network, CaMeRa (Computation with Multiple Representations), that employs a "Mind's Eye" representation for pictorial information, consisting of a bitmap and associated node-link structures. Propositional list structures are used to represent verbal information and reasoning. Small individual pieces from the different representations are linked on a sequential and temporary basis to form a reasoning and inferencing chain, using visually encoded information recalled to the Mind's Eye from long-term memory and from cues recognized on an external display. CaMeRa, like the expert, uses the diagrammatic and verbal representations to complement one another, thus exploiting the unique advantages of each.     

Changes in Behaviour and Body Weight Following a Single or Double Social Defeat in Rats

In a series of experiments, the consequences of a single and double social conflict on various behaviours and body weight in rats were studied. Animals were subjected to social defeat by placing them into the territory of an aggressive male conspecific for one hour, either once, or twice at the same time on two consecutive days. To assess the consequences of social defeat, three experiments were performed with independent groups of rats. In the first experiment, an open field test was performed two days after the last conflict. Locomotor activity was strongly reduced after social defeat. There were no differences between the single and double defeat group. To assess the effects of social defeat on subsequent social behaviour, a second experiment was performed in which experimental animals were confronted with an unfamiliar non-aggressive rat two days after a single or double conflict. Social defeat resulted in a reduction of social contact with the unfamiliar conspecific. There was no difference between the single and double conflict group. In the third experiment, the effects of social conflict on food intake, body weight and saccharine preference were measured. Food intake was not affected after a single conflict, but in the double conflict group food intake was decreased for several days. Body weight gain was decreased after both single and double social defeat. The decrease was stronger in the double conflict group. Water intake and saccharine preference were not significantly affected. This study revealed that social defeat in rats causes pronounced changes in various behaviours and body weight. Different aspects of behaviour are differentially affected by defeat with respect to the magnitude and time course of the changes induced. Moreover, different behavioural parameters are differentially sensitive to repetition of the stressor.