Ducking the collection of costly evidence: Motivated use of statistical heuristics

We examined whether motivation affects people's use of statistical heuristics. In two studies, subjects had to decide how many instances to observe before making predictions. Half the subjects were led to believe that the observation of each instance would be relatively high in cost, and half were led to believe that it would be relatively low in cost. In both studies, only subjects for whom evidence collection was relatively high in cost accessed the aggregation principle and came to believe that aggregates afforded greater predictability than did single instances. Their belief that predictability increases sharply with sample size may have allowed these subjects to conclude what they wanted to conclude, namely that smaller samples would suffice for their predictions.     

The representation of time and location in memory for sentences

Two theoretical approaches to the representation of Time and Location Markers in Memory were contrasted. According to predictions derived from one approach, the amount of forgetting will be the same for two-proposition sentences and sentences with a single proposition and a Time or a Location marker. According to the other approach, the amount of forgetting will be the same for one-proposition sentences and sentences with a Time or a Location Marker. Propositional structure and the level of within-sentence associations were orthogonally varied to create eight within-subject experimental conditions. Ninety subjects studied 40 sentences and were required to recall then. Four dependent variables were used: number of sentences completely recalled, number of sentences partially recalled, number of sentences where information was lost from within the proposition, and number of sentences where a complete proposition was lost. The results suggest that Time and Location markers are represented in memory as arguments in a proposition rather than as separate propositions. Level of associations within the sentence seems to have a different effect when the sentence is composed of one or two propositions. The results also suggest that there may be differences between the representations of Time and Location markers.     

Self-Perception and Deceptive Behavior: The Uniqueness of Feminine Males

The present study investigated the relationshipbetween deception and selfperception of traditionallymasculine and feminine characteristics. In the firststage of the study, 730 fifth and sixth graders (377 boys and 353 girls), all Jewish Israelis,completed an adapted form of the BSRI (Bem, 1974). Inthe second stage of the study, 154 boys were given threetypes of questionnaires, one consisting of questions dealing with traditionally masculine topics,the second with traditionally feminine topics, and thethird with neutral topics. Since most of the questionswere very difficult, participants faced failure, but were given an opportunity to deceive andpretend to know more than they really did. It was found,as predicted, that cross-sex males, i.e., those whoself-endorse a large amount of traditionally feminine characteristics and a small amount oftraditionally masculine characteristics, were a uniquegroup. They were the only group who deceived more on thegender-inconsistent than gender-consistent task. The other gender role groups deceived more on thegender-consistent task than on the gender-inconsistenttask, or equally on both tasks. The results arediscussed within the context of the debate over themeaning of self-endorsement of masculine and femininetraits.     

High‐conflict divorced couples: combining systemic and psychodynamic perspectives

This article describes typologies of couples in high‐conflict divorces and explores their dynamics through the prism of family systems and British object relations theories. The article argues that couples embroiled in high‐conflict divorce often have primitive object relations. They tend to use splitting and projection processes and find it difficult to tolerate ambivalence or disagreement. Fear of the ex‐spouse's retaliation is often accompanied by fear of their own destructiveness and by a wish to make reparation. However, it seems that reparation attempts in primitive object relations rarely achieve reconciliation. A case study demonstrates the complicated dynamics of these couples. Clinical recommendations are made.     

framing of prenatal screening test results and women's health-illness orientations as determinants of perceptions of fetal health and approval of amniocentesis

Abstract

Framing effects of medical test results and interactions of these effects with personal perspectives were investigated in the context of prenatal screening. Hundred and Thirty-three pregnant women undergoing the ‘triple-test’ were assessed as having health or illness orientations, and were randomly presented with reassuring/moderate/severe diagnoses framed in normal/abnormal terms, forming a 2 × 3 × 2 between subjects design. Evaluations of fetus' health and recommendations to perform amniocentesis were assessed. Findings showed healthier evaluations of the fetus and weaker recommendations to perform amniocentesis in normal versus abnormal framings. An interaction was found between framing, diagnosis, and personal orientations: women with health orientations receiving a moderate diagnosis framed in abnormal terms were significantly more inclined to recommend amniocentesis than illness-oriented women given the same diagnosis; the normal/abnormal framing of severe diagnoses yielded opposite effects on health-oriented versus illness-oriented women. The influences of framing effects and health/ illness orientations on health perceptions and behavioral intentions were discussed.     

When do stereotypes come to mind and when do they color judgment? A goal-based theoretical framework for stereotype activation and application

The authors describe a theoretical framework for understanding when people interacting with a member of a stereotyped group activate that group's stereotype and apply it to that person. It is proposed that both stereotype activation and stereotype application during interaction depend on the strength of comprehension and self-enhancement goals that can be satisfied by stereotyping one's interaction partner and on the strength of one's motivation to avoid prejudice. The authors explain how these goals can promote and inhibit stereotype activation and application, and describe diverse chronic and situational factors that can influence the intensity of these goals during interaction and, thereby, influence stereotype activation and application. This approach permits integration of a broad range of findings on stereotype activation and application.     

The dynamic time course of stereotype activation: activation, dissipation, and resurrection

Stereotypes activated upon initial exposure to a stereotyped individual may dissipate as the exposure continues. Participants observing a videotaped interview with a Black person showed activation of the stereotype of Black people following 15 s of observation but not following 12 min of observation. However, the discovery of a disagreement with the stereotyped individual may bring the dissipated stereotype back to mind. Participants who discovered, at the end of a 12-min videotaped interview with a Black person, that this person disagreed with them about the verdict in a court case showed activation of the stereotype of Black people, whereas participants who discovered instead that the Black person agreed with them did not. Participants who disagreed with a Black person also applied the Black stereotype to him, but this stereotype application was detected only on an implicit measure of application, not on an explicit measure.     

The elimination of learned helplessness deficits as a function of induced self-esteem

The efficiency of induced self-esteem in reducing various deficits caused by learned helplessness was tested in this study. Sixty undergraduate students were divided into three equal groups. The first group received uncontrollability treatment, the second received controllability treatment, and the third received no treatment. The subjects in the first two groups were asked to reduce the anxiety reaction of a confederate, as shown on an oscilloscope, by talking to him. The anxiety waves were shown on the oscilloscope and were preprogrammed so that subjects in the uncontrollability treatment group experienced lack of control over the results, while the ones in the controllability group were led to belive that they successfully controlled the changes of the confederate's anxiety. Then, half of the subjects in each of the three groups received positive feedback on their personality, while the other half received no feedback. In the last phase all subjects participated in a word recognition task using a tachistoscope operated by a combined push-button and microphone device. Response latency, number of correct identifications, and persistence in the task were recorded. In addition, the subjects completed a mood scale. The results indicate that subjects who received induced self-esteem treatment showed significantly more deficit reversal as reflected in response latency, persistence, feelings of potency, and sadness. The results are discussed in relation to (a) the assumption regarding the similarities between learned helplessness and depression, and (b) the usefulness of induced self-esteem as a form of treatment for helplessness depression.