All-or-none-acquisition in matching-to-sample and a test of two models

Three pigeons learned to match three colors in a matching-to-sample procedure. The sample hue was presented on the center one of three keys, and the comparison hues were presented on the side keys. Forty responses on the center key produced the stimuli on the side keys and left the sample on the center key. A single response on the correct side key produced 3-sec access to grain, which was followed by a 25-sec intertrial interval. A correction procedure was employed when an error was committed. Before attaining asymptotic levels, there was no evidence of learning, responses were independent of the preceding response, and distributions of errors in four-trial blocks were binomial. Distributions of error runs, runs of various lengths, autocorrelations of errors of several lags, alternations of correct responses and errors, etc., were shown to fit Bower's (1961) all-or-none model better than a gradual learning model of Bush and Sternberg (1959). A transfer test employing a novel color showed only transitory degradation of performance.     

Application of Bower's one-element model to paired-associate learning by pigeons

Bower's (1961) all-or-none model of human paired-associate learning was applied to individual data supplied by three pigeons. When the center one of three keys was illuminated with red light or with three white dots in a vertical array on a black ground, pecking on the left key was reinforced. When the center key was lighted green or with a horizontal array of three white dots on a black ground, pecking on the right key was reinforced. The left and right keys were illuminated with white light. The task was considered to be analogous to learning a paired-associate list of four pairs involving four stimulus items and two response items. The model was evaluated by comparing the following model predictions with values obtained from each animal: trials-to-criterion, standard deviation of trials-to-criterion, standard deviation of errors-to-criterion, mean error runs, mean error runs of lengths one to four, and autocorrelations of errors of lags one to three. Most of the predictions based upon the model were in close agreement with the obtained data.     

PSYCHOTHERAPY AS PHASE-SPECIFIC INTERACTION

I am writing this paper to help myself, and hopefully some readers, to a better understanding of why some analysands in certain phases of the analysis develop the idea that they are homosexuals or that their analyst is homosexual. My basic thought is that even if these ideas have their individual roots and differ from case to case, they are also dependent on certain phenomena that are included in the analytic encounter and specified by different gender constellations constituting the analytic couple. I will present two examples from my own practice. From these two vignettes, I will draw some conclusions which are supported by my general psychoanalytic experience. The first example concerns male analysands. I have often seen male patients develop the fantasy that they “in reality” are homosexual. This fantasy is so common that it is a rule in my experience. I see it as a product of the fact that the psychoanalytic constellation consists, as in my case, of two men. The second example concerns female analysands. In a few cases with female analysands, I have seen the fantasy emerge that I, the analyst, am homosexual—a fantasy not seen in my male cases. Another difference is that I can't see this as a rule like the fantasy of the male analysands. In both the male and the female cases, I see the homosexual fantasies as a protection against discovery of the mother-transference to me. However, the fantasies have found different expressions depending on the specific gender constellation of the analytic couple: man and man and woman and man, respectively.     

Concurrent random-interval schedules and the matching law

In Experiment I, a group of eight pigeons performed on concurrent random-interval schedules constructed by holding probability equal and varying cycle time to produce ratios of reinforcer densities of 1:1, 3:1, and 5:1 for key pecking. Schedules for a second group of seven were constructed with equal cycle times and unequal probabilities. Both groups deviated from simple matching, but the two forms of the schedules appeared to produce no consistent patterns of deviation. The data were found to be consistent with those obtained in concurrent variable-interval situations. The parameters of the matching equation in the form of Y=k X^a were estimated; the value of k was unity and a was 0.84. In Experiment II, six pigeons were exposed to two conc RI RI schedules in which one component increasingly approximated an FI schedule. The value of k was not 1.0. Concurrent RI RI schedules were shown to represent a continuum from conc FI VI to conc VI VI schedules. The use of the exponential equation in testing “matching laws” suggests that a<1 will continue to be observed, and this will set limits on the form of new laws and the assumed or rational values of the component variables in these laws.     

Development and maintenance of choice in a dynamic environment

Four pigeons were exposed to a concurrent procedure similar to that used by Davison, Baum, and colleagues (e.g., Davison & Baum, 2000, 2006) in which seven components were arranged in a mixed schedule, and each programmed a different left∶right reinforcer ratio (1∶27, 1∶9, 1∶3, 1∶1, 3∶1, 9∶1, 27∶1). Components within each session were presented randomly, lasted for 10 reinforcers each, and were separated by 10-s blackouts. These conditions were in effect for 100 sessions. When data were aggregated over Sessions 16-50, the present results were similar to those reported by Davison, Baum, and colleagues: (a) preference adjusted rapidly (i.e., sensitivity to reinforcement increased) within components; (b) preference for a given alternative increased with successive reinforcers delivered via that alternative (continuations), but was substantially attenuated following a reinforcer on the other alternative (a discontinuation); and (c) food deliveries produced preference pulses (immediate, local, increases in preference for the just-reinforced alternative). The same analyses were conducted across 10-session blocks for Sessions 1-100. In general, the basic structure of choice revealed by analyses of data from Sessions 16-50 was preserved at a smaller level of aggregation (10 sessions), and it developed rapidly (within the first 10 sessions). Some characteristics of choice, however, changed systematically across sessions. For example, effects of successive reinforcers within a component tended to increase across sessions, as did the magnitude and length of the preference pulses. Thus, models of choice under these conditions may need to take into account variations in behavior allocation that are not captured completely when data are aggregated over large numbers of sessions.     

Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung (BPS) und Dissoziative Identitätsstörung (DIS)

Patienten mit einer Vorgeschichte mit komplexen (Kindheits-) Traumatisierungen und daraus resultierenden posttraumatischen St?rungsbildern wie z.B. der komplexen posttraumatischen Belastungsst?rung, der Borderline-Pers?nlichkeitsst?rung (BPS) und/oder komplexen dissoziativen St?rungen (Dissoziative Identit?tsst?rung, DIS und DIS-?hnliche Formen der Nicht n?her bezeichneten dissoziativen St?rung, engl. dissociative disorder not otherwise specified, DDNOS) stellen in der klinischen Praxis h?ufig eine besondere Herausforderung für psychotherapeuten, ?rzten bzw. Stationsteams dar. Sowohl die klinische Erfahrung als auch empirische Forschungsergebnisse zeigen, dass betroffene Patienten h?ufig unter sehr komplexen St?rungsbildern mit oft vielen Komorbidit?ten leiden (Kessler, 1995), dass viele Patienten zu wiederholten Krisen und Dekompensationen neigen und dass es ohne eine traumaspezifische Psychotherapie h?ufig zu einem chronischen St?rungsverlauf mit oft intensivem psychiatrischem Behandlungsbedarf und entsprechend hohen Krankheitskosten kommt.