Dimensionality and validity of two scales measuring different aspects of self-esteem

Two self-esteem (SE) scales aimed to measure self-esteem–conceptualized primarily (a) as the individual's ego-integrated libidinous and aggressive drives and their derivatives (Basic SE), and (b) as the need to earn self-esteem by competence and others' appraisal (Earning SE)–were developed and factor analysed. In order to construct- and cross-validate the scales, they were related to other well-known personality scales as well as to a projective technique (TAT) in two independent samples of first semester psychology students ( n = 153, n = 82). The empirical factor structure coincided well with the theoretical formulations. Basic SE showed concurrent validity being highly correlated ( p < 0.001) with both Rosenberg's and Coopersmith's self-esteem scales and highly or moderately with Neuroticism, Extraversion (EPQ) and Test-Anxicty (TAS) in both samples. Earning SE gained some construct validation by its relation to Type-A scores (JAS) as well as to verbal fantasy stories on TAT-pictures measuring Need of Achievement.     

A token economy program for chronic schizophrenic patients

Abstract.— A token economy program was applied on a ward for 12 chronic schizophrenic patients. An ABABC-design, i.e. a group reversal design with a noncontingent reinforcement phase at the end, was used to evaluate the treatment. The patients' activity-level increased from baseline to the treatment phase. During the reversal period the activity-level decreased but it increased again when the token economy was reintroduced. The non-contingent reinforcement resulted in the predicted decrease for two of the six behaviors recorded. Five of the twelve patients were discharged from the ward during the 8-month program period and none of them had been readmitted at the end of the one year follow-up. Individual treatment programs for two of the patients concerning aggressive acts, deficient eye-contact and lip-biting are described.     

Psychometric properties of the serial colour word test

Abstract.— Lower bound reliabilities for the various parameters of two previously suggested models for the serial colour word test—one linear and one quadratic —are derived and estimated. The quadratic model gave mostly very low reliabilities, and the stronger, linear model also gave only a few high reliabilities. Validity was studied by means of discriminant functions (4 groups being used; 3 clinical and 1 normal). The validity of the test was low. The linear model gave the best results under cross validation.     

Risk, moral value of actions, and mood

In this article the acceptability of risk is related to the moral value of risky actions. Four widely different groups of subjects (clergy, MBA students, prison inmates and pregnant women) judged 20 individual and 20 collective acts with reference to acceptability of risk, moral value, and value and probability of negative and positive consequences. They also rated their current mood. Acceptability of risks was most strongly related to moral value, which thus was found to be an important determiner of acceptability of risk. A depressed mood was associated with a lenient attitude to risks. Societal acts were more negatively evaluated than individual acts. There was a strong positive correlation between values and probabilities of outcomes, both positive and negative.     

Action and emotion in everyday life

This study of naturally occurring behaviour employed a "beeper technique" to investigate the actions carried out by 152 subjects in eight different groups, viz. adult students, employed students who were also parents, unemployed, art students, doctoral students, alcoholics, retired people and a control group. Actions were sampled for seven subsequent days, five times per day between 8 a.m. and 10 p.m. at randomly selected occasions. Each action was rated on a number of variables, shortly after it was sampled (median delay approximately 10 min). Some of the findings were: Time allocation corresponded well with national estimates. Being under situational control was highly aversive. Instrumental and consummatory orientations correlated positively. The background variables were, on the whole, only rather weakly related to action ratings, but it was found that women and retired persons tended to report a higher level of well-being.     

The effect of prompting and reinforcement of activity in elderly demented inpatients

On a ward for 24 psychogeriatric patients, 18 were randomly assigned to three groups with different experimental conditions. The first group was prompted and reinforced for different activities; the second was only prompted; and the third served as a control group. Activities, both the trained ones and others, were continuously monitored throughout the five week study. The results showed a clear increase in the trained activities after training. The prompting condition was effective, and the addition of reinforcement did not add any to the effects. There was no generalization to untrained activities, and the effects did not last at the 1 hr or 21 hr assessments, but was clearly visible at 5 min after training. Time seemed to be more important than place, i.e. the effect ceased with elapsed time, not because of changes in the situation.     

Logical versus psychological necessity: A discussion of the role of common sense in psychological theory

Smedslund's has argued that psychological theory should be concerned with the logical analysis of common sense since (a) empirical data are "arbitrary" and no general and empirical laws can exist when it comes to human action; and (b) theoretical explanation of data is likely to be empirically empty—psychological theory often cannot be falsified. The argument was supported mainly by an analysis of Bandura's self-efficacy conceptions. Bandura's approach is, however, not developed to the point of being an explicit theory, a fact that explains why it can be demonstrated as being non-distinguishable from the naive analysis of action. Many well developed theories of decision making, such as Tversky's EBA theory, transcend common sense and are falsifiable. Common sense is, furthermore, subject to change over time and differs between cultures, and even between individuals. There is no such things as the common sense. It is also inconsistent and ambiguous and uses a loose mode of thinking which can often provide post hoc explanations but no predictions. Therefore, common sense probably offers little in the way of profound insights. Furthermore, the problems of inferrring general laws from unique events have not stifled progress in the natural sciences and should not discourage psychologists. The case for general laws in psychology is still being heard. Besides, even if findings are restricted in time and space they concern important questions of how people act here and now. Finally, Smedslund's attempt at logical analysis of treatment rules is shown to provide little more than semantic explication of the chosen definitions of key terms; in no way can such explication serve as a substitute for empirical research on psychotherapy effects.     

Volitional problems in trying to quit smoking

A series of interviews was conducted with 10 patients in an anti smoking clinic. Earlier results implying that volitional breakdowns in trying to quit smoking occur under emotional stress and are preceded by distorted reasoning were replicated. The patients were also asked about techniques they used to resist temptations. These techniques involved (a) bringing to mind values and wishes incompatible with the wish to smoke, and (b) diverting attention to some other action. Such acts may be interpreted as processing mental energy rather than information, pointing to a need for a broader conception of the regulation of action than is available in contemporary work on decision making.     

Consistency in catecholamine excretion in laboratory and natural settings: correlational and variance components analyses

Data from 20 healthy male subjects were used to evaluate the consistency in catecholamine excretion in both laboratory and natural situations during approximately a 48-hr period. Correlational analyses showed high interindividual consistency in adrenaline excretion under laboratory conditions regardless of degree and kind of activity and of the interval at which measures were taken. In non-standardized natural situations the consistency was low. For nor adrenaline the pattern was less regular. Analysis of variance components showed that absolute consistency was high in both amines in situations with similar activity content and low activity level. It was found that the more similar the situations the more of variation in catecholamine excretion was due to interindividual differences and the more dissimilar the situations the more of the variation was due to interaction. It is concluded that the degree of consistency in catecholamine excretion varies with situational characteristics.     

Comments on Smedslund's "Revising explications of common sense through dialogue"

Smedslund's attempt to show that common sense is invariant is discussed. It is pointed out that he used a new definition of common sense as well as instructions which maximize invariance. Therefore, the findings demonstrate merely that the subjects utilized well known folk psychological concepts in their inferences. They cannot be generalized to other, real-life, situations and to the usual meaning of the term common sense. The use of dialogue to increase invariance may work in an artificial setting where little is at stake but may well increase and freeze differences of opinion in real-life settings. Still, Smedslund should be given credit for initiating work at a conceptual level which is badly needed, as illustrated here with an example from work on intrinsic motivation.