Identity and Therapy in the Black Community

Counselors working in the black community must understand the special problems of black people in discovering and affirming their identity. Black Power, proclaiming the integrity of the black community, has special relevance for black people in search of an identity. Counselors cannot ignore the new self-awareness which many black clients bring to counseling. An approach to counseling black clients is suggested, and some techniques are reviewed that may facilitate their full freedom. The role of the white counselor may be one of supervisor of lay therapists in the black community or change-agent and interpreter in the white community.     

Supervenience and explanation

This paper explores the explanatory adequacy of lower-level theories when their higher-level counterparts are irreducible. If some state or entity described by a high-level theory supervenes upon and is realized in events, entities, etc. described by the relevant lower-level theory, does the latter fully explain the higher-level event even if the higher-level theory is irreducible? While the autonomy of the special sciences and the success of various eliminativist programs depends in large part on how we answer this question, neither the affirmative or negative answer has been defended in detail. I argue, contra Putnam and others, that certain facts about causation and explanation show that such lower-level theories do explain. I also argue, however, that there may be important questions about counterfactuals and laws that such explanations cannot answer, thereby showing their partial inadequacy. I defend the latter claim against criticisms based on eliminativism about higher-level explanations and sketch a number of empirical conditions that lower-level explanations would have to meet to fully explain higher-level events.     

Beyond the breakpoint: reinstatement,renewal, and resurgence of ratio‐strained behavior

Three experiments were conducted using pigeons to assess the recurrence of responding eliminated by increasing the value of a progressive‐ratio schedule to the breakpoint of responding. The procedures used in these assessments were, in successive experiments, reinstatement, renewal and resurgence. Each was effective in returning temporarily the eliminated responding. Reinstatement occurred with both yoked‐time and fixed‐time food deliveries. Both renewal and resurgence resulted in immediate recurrence of the response, and, as in other experiments investigating resurgence, the key peck response resurged as the alternative response extinguished. The results of all three experiments suggest the generality of these recurrence procedures to responding under progressive‐ratio schedules, indicating that strained performance under these schedules is amenable to recovery under the investigated conditions.     

Changes in sex-role attitudes and self-actualization of adult women following a consciousness-raising group

Changes in sex-role attitudes and self-actualization of adult women in a community college were examined following a consciousness-raising group. Participants viewed their own role and that of their ideal woman as more extrafamilial, became more inner-directed, and maintained a consistently positive attitude toward other women.     

Putting inference to the best explanation in its place

This paper discusses the nature and the status of inference to the best explanation (IBE). We (1) outline the foundational role given IBE by its defenders and the arguments of critics who deny it any place at all; (2) argue that, on the two main conceptions of explanation, IBE cannot be a foundational inference rule; (3) sketch an account of IBE that makes it contextual and dependent on substantive empirical assumptions, much as simplicity seems to be; (4) show how that account avoids the critics' complaints and leaves IBE an important role; and (5) sketch how our account can clarify debates over IBE in arguments for scientific realism.The general line of argumentation developed in this paper owes much to the most recent work of Elliot Sober on simplicity and confirmation; we want to acknowledge that dependence directly. Since writing this paper, we have also come across Yemima Ben-Menahem: 1990, The Inference to the Best Explanation,Erkenntnis 33, 319–44, whose general approach parallels our own. Helpful comments were made on earlier drafts by George Graham, Romane Clark, Yemima Ben-Menahem, and an anonymous referee.     

Neighborhood context and adjustment in African American youths from single mother homes: the intervening role of hopelessness

African American youths from single mother homes are more likely to live in neighborhoods characterized by greater risk and fewer resources than youth from two parent homes or European American youths; in turn, such adverse conditions are associated with increased adjustment problems. Despite this well-established vulnerability, relatively little is known about variables linking neighborhood context to youth adjustment. With the aim of identifying a potential youth-focused intervening variable amenable to intervention, this study examined the intervening role of hopelessness in the association between neighborhood context and adjustment problems in a sample of 171 African American youths (11-16 year olds) from single mother homes. Findings revealed direct associations between neighborhood context and youth adjustment, as well as indirect associations through youth hopelessness, although findings varied by the marker of neighborhood context (sense of community or perceived crime) and adjustment (internalizing or externalizing problems). Building on prior work noting that hopelessness is amenable to psychosocial intervention, the present findings suggest that hopelessness may afford a valuable target for prevention and intervention programming among African American youths from single mother homes in the context of adverse neighborhood conditions.     

Evaluating Check-In Check-Out With Peer Tutors for Children With Attention Maintained Problem Behaviors

School Wide Positive Behavior Support provides schools with three tiers of support to address both academic and behavior challenges. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of peer tutors with three elementary students when applied to a Tier 2 intervention known as Check-In Check-Out (CICO). Peer tutors performed the morning check-in with the tutees by setting the expectations for the day and giving the tutees their Daily Progress Report (DPR) form. Throughout the day, the tutees took the DPR form to each class where they received a score from the teacher. At the end of the class period, the peer tutors provided the tutees with feedback on the scores received on the DPR form. Once the school day finished, the peer tutees checked-out with the tutors and received a reward if they met their percentage goal. The results of this study showed that CICO implemented by peers improved classroom behavior for all three participants.