Theoretical and statistical derivation of a screener for the behavioral assessment of executive functions in children

The problem of valid measurement of psychological constructs remains an impediment to scientific progress, and the measurement of executive functions is not an exception. This study examined the statistical and theoretical derivation of a behavioral screener for the estimation of executive functions in children from the well-established Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC). The original national standardization sample of the BASC-Teacher Rating Scales for children ages 6 through 11 was used (N = 2,165). Moderate-to-high internal consistency was obtained within each factor (.80-.89). A panel of experts was used for content validity examination. A confirmatory factor analysis model with 25 items loading on 4 latent factors (behavioral control, emotional control, attentional control, and problem solving) was developed, and its statistical properties were examined. The multidimensional model demonstrated adequate fit, and it was deemed invariant after configural, metric, and scalar measurement invariance tests across sex and age. Given its strong psychometric properties, with further tests of item validity, this instrument promises future clinical and research utility for the screening of executive functions in school-age children.     

A self-report typology of behavioral adjustment for young children

A large, national U.S. sample of children rated their own behavior and emotions using the Self-Report of Personality-Child version (SRP-C) of the Behavior Assessment System for Children (C. R. Reynolds & R. W. Kamphaus, 1992). Cluster analysis was used to group 4,981 self-reports (SRP-C) of children between the ages of 8 and 11 years. Theoretical and empirical considerations were used to identify a 10-cluster solution. Internal validation procedures revealed that the 10-cluster solution was well replicated by independently classifying 2 large subsamples of participants. External validation evidence revealed that only 2 of the 10 clusters could be differentiated by parent and teacher ratings of behavior problems. Peer ratings of social status and behavior, however, proved far better than adult ratings at differentiating the clusters. These findings suggest that the realm of intraindividual adjustment is not well understood by parents and teachers of these same children.     

Factor structure of the BASC-2 Behavioral and Emotional Screening System Student Form

The BASC-2 Behavioral and Emotional Screening System (BESS) Student Form (Kamphaus & Reynolds, 2007) is a recently developed youth self-report rating scale designed to identify students at risk for behavioral and emotional problems. The BESS Student Form was derived from the Behavior Assessment System for Children-Second Edition Self-Report of Personality (BASC-2 SRP; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004) using principal component analytic procedures and theoretical considerations. Using 3 samples, the authors conducted exploratory factor analyses (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) to understand the underlying factor structure of the BESS Student Form. The results of the EFA suggested that the SRP contained a 4-factor (i.e., Personal Adjustment, Inattention/Hyperactivity, Internalizing, School Problems) emergent structure, which was supported by CFA in 2 additional samples. Practical and research implications are discussed.     

A Typology of Teacher-Rated Child Behavior for a National U.S. Sample

The purpose of the current study was to build on the emerging effort to produce a meaningful typology of classroom behavior for elementary school age children. The Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) Teacher Rating Scales for Children (TRS-C) norming data were collected for 1,227 six- to eleven-year-old children at 116 sites representing various regions of the United States. The TRS-C has 148 items that are rated by the teacher on a 4-point scale of frequency, ranging from Never to Almost always. The Ward method of cluster analysis was used to identify the initial centroids or cluster seeds. An iterative clustering method, a K-means procedure, was used to refine the Ward cluster solution. A seven-cluster solution was selected based on both rational and empirical considerations. The resulting clusters were named well-adapted, average, learning disorder, disruptive behavior disorder, physical complaints and worry, severe psychopathology, and mildly disruptive. The seven-cluster solution resembles those of Achenbach (1991), Curry and Thompson (1985), and other researchers. The resulting typology points the way toward future cluster studies of child psychopathology by delineating additional research and theoretical questions.     

Short-term predictive validity of cluster analytic and dimensional classification of child behavioral adjustment in school

A constructive debate over the classification of child psychopathology can be stimulated by investigating the validity of different classification approaches. We examined and compared the short-term predictive validity of cluster analytic and dimensional classifications of child behavioral adjustment in school using the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC; [Reynolds, C. R., and Kamphaus, R. W. (1992). Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC). Circle Pines, MN: AGS.]) Teacher Rating Scales for Children (TRS-C). We cluster analyzed 14 dimensional scores of children's behavior in first grade and identified seven clusters. Then we examined the predictive power of the dimensions and the clusters using a variety of school outcomes in second grade, including academic achievement scores in reading and math, absenteeism, discipline reports, and participation rates in pre-referral intervention. Both methods significantly predicted all school outcomes with similar magnitudes of effect sizes, but the dimensional approach was more powerful in predicting the outcomes except pre-referral intervention. Moreover, coherent group differences in the clusters were identified with respect to the school outcomes. This latter finding may suggest differentiated prognoses of cluster membership. The implications for future validation studies of alternative classification systems of child behavioral adjustment are discussed.     

Draw-a-Person techniques: Tests in search of a construct

Drawing techniques involving human figures have been a part of psychologists' test batteries for most of this century. One of the earliest and most popular of these techniques is the Draw A Person test (DAP). Recently, Draw A Person: A Quantitative Scoring System, a new drawing technique, was published. This article reviews the concurrent validity data for this new measure and many of its predecessors, and concludes that the latest DAP is strikingly similar to its forebears. While the DAP is the best drawing technique available, its concurrent validity evidence does not support the use of such instruments as measures of intelligence.     

Training analysis in the dutch society for psychoanalytic psychotherapy: A survey of attitudes and feasibility

SUMMARY

As is the case in many training courses in psychoanalytic psychotherapy, one of the training requirements of the Dutch Society for Psychoanalytical Psychotherapy (NVPP) is a training analysis, currently a minimum duration of 700 hours. During the last few years, this requirement has become somewhat controversial. Because the NVPP does not have information about the current interest in NVPP membership, the Board of the NVPP decided to do a survey. Of 995 psychiatrists, clinical psychologists and psychotherapists, who had recently completed their training, or were still in training, 623 filled in a questionnaire. Of those who are interested in the NVPP training, 39 per cent judged the training analysis as not feasible in terms of time, and 61 per cent in terms of money. Forms of personal treatment thought desirable for anyone who wishes to become a psychoanalytic psychotherapist at a specialist level are, in descending order, psychoanalytic psychotherapy (63%), psychoanalysis (39%), psychoanalytic group psychotherapy (25%), and psychoanalytic marital or family therapy (6%). Respondents who judge personal analysis as not feasible, also tend to judge psychoanalysis to be equivalent to other forms of psychoanalytic psychotherapy, whereas those who judge personal analysis as feasible, tend to think that personal analysis is essential for a psychoanalytic psychotherapist at the specialist level.