The effect of culture and self‐construals on predispositions toward verbal communication

This study tested the effects of culture and self‐construals (i.e., independence and interdependence) on predispositions toward verbal communication. For the purpose of this study, we focused on two main areas of verbal communication predispositions: (a) communication apprehension and (b) argumentativeness. In our path model, we expected that culture‐level individualism increases one's construal of self as independent, which, in turn, leads to a higher degree of argumentativeness and a lower level of communication apprehension. We also expected that culture‐level individualism decreases one's construal of self as interdependent, which, in turn, leads to a lower degree of argumentativeness and a higher level of communication apprehension. Data to test the model were drawn from undergraduates (N=539) studying in Korea, Hawaii, and mainland U.S. The data were partially consistent with the theoretical predictions made. The implications of the results for theory and practice are discussed.     

Differential reinforcement of reaction times in developmental retardates.

The effects of differential reinforcement on reaction times to two intensities of reaction signal were investigated in 36 developmental retardates. One group was reinforced for reaction times to the higher intensity signal; a second group was reinforced for reaction times to the lower intensity signal; a third group received no reinforcement. Reaction time decreased as signal intensity increased and decreased over sessions as a function of reinforcement. Likewise, reinforcement either exaggerated or reversed differences in reaction times to each signal depending on the particular reinforcement contingency. Results were discussed in terms of attentional and motivational explanations of effects of signal intensity on reaction times of retardates.     

Effects of teacher attention on digit-reversal behavior in an elementary school child

Teacher attention was systematically manipulated to modify digit-reversal behavior in an elementary school child. Almost invariably, the child reversed the order of digits (e.g., writing 21 as the sum of 5 + 7) when adding numbers yielding a two-digit sum. The child, along with classmates, was given 20 addition problems a day for the duration of the study, and the number of reversals was recorded. During an initial baseline period, the teacher responded to digit reversals by marking them as incorrect and then giving the child "extra help" until all sums were correctly ordered. The child's present and previous teacher had both responded to reversals in this manner for approximately one year before the present study began. An experimental period followed during which the rate of reversals decreased sharply. During this period, all sums were marked as correct (whether reversed or not); "extra help" with reversals was discontinued; and correct, i.e., non-reversed, response forms were responded to with a smile, a pat on the back, and a brief comment. A reversal period followed, during which the teacher responded to reversals as she had in the first baseline period. An increase in the rate of reversals to baseline level occurred within three days. A final period, replicating the first experimental period followed, and was characterized by a sharp decrease in the rate of reversals.