Weakly parallel tests in latent trait theory with some criticisms of classical test theory

A new concept of weakly parallel tests, in contrast to strongly parallel tests in latent trait theory, is proposed. Some criticisms of the fundamental concepts in classical test theory, such as the reliability of a test and the standard error of estimation, are given.     

THE INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENTIAL PRE-READING INSTRUCTIONS ON CONSTRUCTING DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF SITUATIONAL REPRESENTATIONS AND PROBLEM-SOLVING IN FL NARRATIVE TEXT COMPREHENSION

This article reports two experiments that address effects of differential pre-reading instructions: 1) IP (instruction to monitor procedural representations) and IN (no instruction); and 2) IS (instruction to monitor spatial representations) and IN, on subsequent situational representations construction and problem-solving in FL narrative text comprehension. While the structure of IP was consistent with the text, the structure of IS was not. The results from Experiment 1 suggest that IP helps readers with low FL proficiency to construct situational representations, but is of little help to solve an inference problem. In addition, readers with low proficiency are hindered from comprehending a text by IS. Experiment 2 suggests that for readers with higher (high-intermediate) FL proficiency, IP had little effect on constructing situational representations and had a negative effect on solving an inference problem. IS, on the other hand, enhances these readers' construction of situational representations and helps their problem-solving. Thus, language proficiency mediates the effects of prereading instructions on the subsequent text comprehension.     

Efficient nonparametric approaches for estimating the operating characteristics of discrete item responses

Rationale and the actual procedures of two nonparametric approaches, called Bivariate P.D.F. Approach and Conditional P.D.F. Approach, for estimating the operating characteristic of a discrete item response, or the conditional probability, given latent trait, that the examinee's response be that specific response, are introduced and discussed. These methods are featured by the facts that: (a) estimation is made without assuming any mathematical forms, and (b) it is based upon a relatively small sample of several hundred to a few thousand examinees.Some examples of the results obtained by the Simple Sum Procedure and the Differential Weight Procedure of the Conditional P.D.F. Approach are given, using simulated data. The usefulness of these nonparametric methods is also discussed.This research was mostly supported by the Office of Naval Research (N00014-77-C-0360, N00014-81-C-0569, N00014-87-K-0320, N00014-90-J-1456).     

A formal framework for modelling the developmental course of competence and performance in the distance,speed, and time domain

The developmental course in the distance–speed–time domain is still a matter of debate. Traditional stage models are contested by theories of continuous development and adaptive thinking. In the present work, we introduce a formal framework for modelling the developmental course in this domain, grounding on Competence-based Knowledge Space Theory. This framework, as a more general case, widely includes assumptions and facets of previous models and covers empirical findings collected based on different experimental paradigms. By a distinction of latent competences and observable performance, model validation is not bound to a certain experimental paradigm and no one-to-one correspondence between competences and tasks is required. Therefore, the framework has the potential to bridge the gap between stage models and models of continuous development. The approach also precisely defines misconceptions, for example overgeneralization, and empirically investigates their occurrence. In the present work, we established a prototypical model for the development of understanding the distance–speed–time system. We extended this model with definitions based on different perspectives of overgeneralization. The assumptions of the model and its extensions were examined on the basis of the results of two empirical investigations using six judgment task types. The results yielded a reasonably good fit of model and data. No evidence was found for the occurrence of overgeneralization in this domain. The theoretical model and empirical results are discussed with respect to their relationship to other developmental models and theories.     

Influence of affective valence on working memory processes

Recent research has revealed widespread effects of emotion on cognitive function and memory. However, the influence of affective valence on working or short-term memory remains largely unexplored. In two experiments, the present study examined the predictions that negative words would capture attention, that attention would be difficult to disengage from such negative words, and that the cost of attention switching would increase the time required to update information in working memory. Participants switched between two concurrent working memory tasks: word recognition and a working memory digit updating task. Experiment 1 showed substantial switching cost for negative words, relative to neutral words. Experiment 2 replicated the first experiment, using a self-report measure of anxiety to examine if switching cost is a function of an anxiety-related attention bias. Results did not support this hypothesis. In addition, Experiment 2 revealed switch costs for positive words without the effect of the attention bias from anxiety. The present study demonstrates the effect of affective valence on a specific component of working memory. Moreover, findings suggest why affective valence effects on working memory have not been found in previous research.     

Acceleration model in the heterogeneous case of the general graded response model

A new model, called acceleration model, is proposed in the framework of the heterogenous case of the graded response model, based on processing functions defined for a finite or enumerable number of steps. The model is expected to be useful in cognitive assessment, as well as in more traditional areas of application of latent trait models. Criteria for evaluating models are proposed, and soundness and robustness of the acceleration model are discussed. Graded response models based on individual choice behavior are also discussed, and criticisms on model selection in terms of fitnesses of models to the data are also given.This research was supported by the Office of Naval Research (N00014-90-J-1456).     

Departure from normal assumptions: A promise for future psychometrics with substantive mathematical modeling

Normal assumptions have been used in many psychometric methods, to the extent that most researchers do not even question their adequacy. With the rapid advancement of computer technologies in recent years, psychometrics has extended its territory to include intensive cognitive diagnosis, etcetera, and substantive mathematical modeling ha become essential. As a natural consequence, it is time to consider departure from normal assumptions seriously. As examples of models which are not based on normality or its approximation, the logistic positive exponent family of models is discussed. These models include the item task complexity as the third parameter, which determines the single principle of ordering individuals on the ability scale.     

A comment on Birnbaum's three-parameter logistic model in the latent trait theory

Birnbaum's three-parameter logistic model for the multiple-choice item in the latent trait theory is considered with respect to the item response information function and the unique maximum condition. It is clarified that with models of knowledge or random guessing nature, which include the three-parameter logistic model, the unique maximum condition is not satisfied for the correct answer, and the item response information function is negative for the interval (− ∞,θ _g ). It is suggested that we should useθ _g as a criterion in selecting optimal items for a specified group of examinees, so that we can practically avoid the possibility of non-unique maxima of the likelihood function on the response pattern given by an examinee in the group. The work described in this paper was partially done while the author was at University of New Brunswick, Canada, in 1968–1970, supported by NRC Grant APA-345 from National Research Council of Canada.     

Homogeneous case of the continuous response model

In line with the latent trait model, the continuous response level is defined and considered, in contrast to the discrete response levels, which have already been explored by the author. Discussions are mainly focused on the homogeneous case and the open response situation. The operating density characteristic of the continuous item score is defined. Also the basic function, information functions and the positive-exponent family are discussed on the continuous response level, in connection with the sufficient condition that a unique maximum estimate is provided for the response pattern, which consists of the continuous item scores.