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Theorists have spent considerable time discussing the concept of responsibility. Their discussions, however, have generally
focused on the question of who counts as responsible, and for what. But as Gary Watson has noted, “Responsibility is a triadic
relationship: an individual (or group) is responsible to others for something” (Watson Agency and answerability: selected
essays, 2004, p. 7). Thus, theorizing about responsibility ought to involve theorizing not just about the actor and her conduct, but also
about those the actor is responsible to—and specifically about how these people hold the actor responsible for her conduct.
In this paper, I give a topology of the terrain of holding others responsible. Over the course of the paper I disambiguate
two very broad senses of holding responsible—regarding another as a responsible agent and holding another responsible for
a particular piece of conduct. Next, I argue that the latter sense of holding responsible is a genus with two species—what
I will call “holding responsible as deep moral appraisal” and “holding responsible as accountability.” Appreciating these
distinctions, I argue, sheds considerable light on a number of questions concerning the scope and nature of our practices
of holding others responsible. Finally, illuminating these distinct senses of holding responsible and highlighting their features
reveals an awkwardness in the most carefully explicated and influential account of holding responsible, namely R. Jay Wallace’s
account in Responsibility and the Moral Sentiments. 相似文献
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Three experiments were conducted to examine the effect of phonological similarity in simple and complex memory span tasks.
In Experiment 1, participants performed either a simple or a complex span task, and the memoranda within lists were either phonologically
similar or distinct. Phonologically similar lists consisted of words that rhymed.The simple span task was word span. There
were two complex span tasks; one was the original reading span task, and the other was a variant of reading span in which
all the sentences within a list were contextually related. The classic phonological similarity decrement was observed in word
span. In contrast, phonological similarity facilitation was observed in both versions of reading span. This facilitation effect
was further investigated in Experiment 2 using two new versions of reading span. In Experiment 2, the sentences in reading span were either short or long, and the memoranda were presented separately from, and were unrelated
to, the sentences. Again, words within phonologically similar lists rhymed, and again, facilitation was observed. In Experiment
3, phonological similarity was operationalized in terms of feature overlap, rather than rhyme. The classic phonological similarity
decrement was still observed in word span, but facilitation was not observed in complex span. The results suggest that phonological
similarity, when operationalized using words that rhyme, serves as a list retrieval cue and that complex span tasks are more
dependent on cue-driven memory retrieval mechanisms than are simple span tasks. 相似文献
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Joel C. Selcher Coleen M. Atkins James M. Trzaskos Richard Paylor J. David Sweatt 《Learning & memory (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.)》1999,6(5):478-490
Although the biochemical mechanisms underlying learning and memory have not yet been fully elucidated, mounting evidence suggests that activation of protein kinases and phosphorylation of their downstream effectors plays a major role. Recent findings in our laboratory have shown a requirement for the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade in hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Therefore, we used an inhibitor of MAPK activation, SL327, to test the role of the MAPK cascade in hippocampus-dependent learning in mice. SL327, which crosses the blood-brain barrier, was administered intraperitoneally at several concentrations to animals prior to cue and contextual fear conditioning. Administration of SL327 completely blocked contextual fear conditioning and significantly attenuated cue learning when measured 24 hr after training. To determine whether MAPK activation is required for spatial learning, we administered SL327 to mice prior to training in the Morris water maze. Animals treated with SL327 exhibited significant attenuation of water maze learning; they took significantly longer to find a hidden platform compared with vehicle-treated controls and also failed to use a selective search strategy during subsequent probe trials in which the platform was removed. These impairments cannot be attributed to nonspecific effects of the drug during the training phase; no deficit was seen in the visible platform task, and injection of SL327 following training produced no effect on the performance of these mice in the hidden platform task. These findings indicate that the MAPK cascade is required for spatial and contextual learning in mice. 相似文献
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Marie La Palme Reyes John Macnamara Gonzalo E. Reyes Houman Zolfaghari 《Memory (Hove, England)》2013,21(4):433-455
Abstract Proper names function in our conceptual lives as means for denoting individuals in kinds. Kinds are denoted by common names, more precisely count nouns, and so there are important interrelations between proper names and common nouns. All of this shows up in the way we interpret proper names and employ them in everyday inferences. For example, an airline may count three passengers in relation to a single person Jane, if Jane takes three trips with the airline. Each of the three passengers is Jane, but there is only one Jane. To handle such operations we propose a theory of proper names as part of the theory of kinds. This enables us to specify certain resources (some of them unlearned) that are necessary for the learning of proper names and also a theory of how they are learned. We review the experimental literature on the learning of proper names from the standpoint of the theory. We do not extend the theory to cover recognition or recall. 相似文献
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Virginia J. Noland Ellen M. Daley Judy C. Drolet Joyce V. Fetro Kelli R. McCormack Brown Coleen D. Hassell Robert J. McDermott 《Sex roles》2004,51(9-10):523-534
In this study we examined the connotative interpretations of selected sexuality-related terms by a cohort of university undergraduate students (n=567). Forty-two sexuality-relevant constructs were rated on thirty 7-point semantic differential scales. Means of the scale sum scores for men and women were compared using t tests. Among women the most favorably rated constructs were orgasm, vaginal sex, sexual intercourse, virginity, masturbation, oral sex, pro-choice, pregnancy, erection, and heterosexual. The most negatively evaluated terms were date rape, sexual abuse, rape, sexual assault, HPV, and HIV/AIDS. For men, the most favorably rated constructs were sexual monogamy, virginity, orgasm, vaginal sex, and heterosexual. The most negatively evaluated terms were rape, HPV, date rape, and sexual abuse. There were statistically significant gender differences in the evaluation of 12 terms (p<.05). The evaluations assigned to 30 possible attributes suggest that some sexuality-related terms elicit strong visceral responses from university students. A discussion of the psychological and emotional impact of sexuality-related terms (i.e., connotative meanings) may be warranted whenever dictionary definitions (i.e., denotative meanings) are presented to students, other groups of learners, and persons in health care and other settings. Moreover, a practitioner's use of language may elicit connotatively different responses for women and men. 相似文献