ODAP: a stand-alone program for observational data acquisition

A software program written to collect real-time, observational data is described. The flexible program allows customized behavior codes and observational durations and simultaneously records both timed and counted events. The data are collected by means of single keystrokes, automatically stored to disk with 100th of a second resolution and summarized for each observational session. The program’s database files are dBASE III PLUS compatible and may be browsed, edited, or converted to ASCII files from the program’s main menu. Field testing demonstrated the efficiency and interobserver reliability of the program (for frequency,r=0.81; for durational behaviors,rs=0.89 and 0.96). The software operates on IBM XT/AT/PS 2s and most clones with PC/MS DOS version 2.0 or greater.     

Ipsilateral loudness adaptation over multiple intensity levels

Could monaural loudness adaptation be a simple artifact of psychophysical contrast? From adaptation data based on the Ipsilateral Comparison Paradigm (ICP), A. J. Dange, J. S. Warm, E. M. Weiler, and W. N. Dember (1993) concluded that loudness adaptation was not an artifact of psychophysical contrast, but their conclusion was dependent on results from one intensity. This study, involving multiple intensities, re-examined the issue of contrast versus adaptation and generally supported the conclusions of Dange et al. The results also showed an unexpected asymmetry of adaptation based on the direction of the referent modulation used with the ICP technique. Some implications are discussed.     

Self-injurious behavior: gene-brain-behavior relationships

This paper summarizes a conference held at the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development on December 6-7, 1999, on self-injurious behavior [SIB] in developmental disabilities. Twenty-six of the top researchers in the U.S. from this field representing 13 different disciplines discussed environmental mechanisms, epidemiology, behavioral and pharmacological intervention strategies, neurochemical substrates, genetic syndromes in which SIB is a prominent behavioral phenotype, neurobiological and neurodevelopmental factors affecting SIB in humans as well as a variety of animal models of SIB. Findings over the last decade, especially new discoveries since 1995, were emphasized. SIB is a rapidly growing area of scientific interest to both basic and applied researchers. In many respects it is a model for the study of gene-brain-behavior relationships in developmental disabilities.     

Physiological patterns accompanying complex problem solving during warning and nonwarning conditions.

Physiological responses of 48 subjects were studied during both a warning and a nonwarning condition and during anagram problem solving. The warning condition was associated with heart rate deceleration and increased occurrence of galvanic skin responses (GSR), of skin conductance, and of tonic galvanic skin potentials (GSP). The warning condition also resulted in significantly faster solution rates. Problem solving was associated with increases in heart rate, occurrence of GSR, and skin conductance. The occurrence of phasic GSP habituated, but the occurrence of tonic GSP maintained a significant response frequency. Large increases in tonic GSP, with minimal phasic increases during problem solving, reflected the bidimensionality of electrodermal activity as a function of the task. These findings were interpreted to support Lacey's hypothesis of response fractionation and suggest the utility of physiological measures in the study of putative attentional functioning.     

Determinants of human operant heart rate conditioning: a systematic investigation of several methodological issues.

Three methodological issues of concern within the literature on human operant heart rate conditioning were assessed utilizing a number of techniques for data reduction. The type of statistical approach largely determined the conclusions to be drawn about 2 issues: (a) differences and similarities between heart rate acceleration and deceleration learning and (b) changes in conditioning over a number of sessions. Three techniques yielded data that confounded between- and within-session shifts in tonic heart rate. A fourth method of data reduction (contrasts between pretrial and trial responding) involved no such difficulty. This method of analysis most accurately represented changes in operant heart rate that occurred within and between conditioning sessions.     

Pattern of perceived stress and anxiety in pregnancy predicts preterm birth.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the pattern of prenatal stress, as compared to prenatal stress assessed at a single gestational time point, predicts preterm delivery (PTD). DESIGN: Perceived stress and anxiety were assessed in 415 pregnant women at 18-20 and 30-32 weeks' gestation. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Gestational length was determined by last menstrual period and confirmed by early pregnancy ultrasound. Births were categorized as preterm (< 37 weeks) or term. RESULTS: At neither assessment did levels of anxiety or perceived stress predict PTD. However, patterns of anxiety and stress were associated with gestational length. Although the majority of women who delivered at term exhibited declines in stress and anxiety, those who delivered preterm exhibited increases. The elevated risk for PTD associated with an increase in stress or anxiety persisted when adjusting statistically for obstetric risk, pregnancy-related anxiety, ethnicity, parity, and prenatal life events. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that the pattern of prenatal stress is an important predictor of PTD. More generally, the findings support the possibility that a decline in stress responses during pregnancy may help to protect mother and fetus from adverse influences associated with PTD.     

Familialism, social support, and stress: positive implications for pregnant Latinas

This study examined the association of familialism, a cultural value that emphasizes close family relationships, with social support, stress, pregnancy anxiety, and infant birth weight. Foreign-born Latina (n = 31), U.S.-born Latina (n = 68), and European American (n = 166) women living in the United States participated in a prospective study of pregnancy in which they completed measures of familialism, social support, stress, and pregnancy anxiety during their second trimester. As expected, Latinas scored higher on familialism than European Americans. Familialism was positively correlated with social support and negatively correlated with stress and pregnancy anxiety in the overall sample. As predicted, however, the associations of familialism with social support and stress were significantly stronger among Latinas than European Americans. Moreover, higher social support was associated with higher infant birth weight among foreign-born Latinas only. Implications of cultural values for relationships and health are discussed.     

Maternal pregnancy-specific anxiety is associated with child executive function at 6-9 years age

Because fetal brain development proceeds at an extremely rapid pace, early life experiences have the potential to alter the trajectory of neurodevelopment, which may increase susceptibility for developmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. There is evidence that prenatal maternal stress and anxiety, especially worries specifically related to being pregnant, influence neurodevelopmental outcomes. In the current prospective longitudinal study, we included 89 women for whom serial data were available for pregnancy-specific anxiety, state anxiety, and depression at 15, 19, 25, 31, and 37 weeks gestation. When the offspring from the target pregnancy were between 6 and 9 years of age, their executive function was assessed. High levels of mean maternal pregnancy-specific anxiety over the course of gestation were associated with lower inhibitory control in girls only and lower visuospatial working memory performance in boys and girls. Higher-state anxiety and depression also were associated with lower visuospatial working memory performance. However, neither state anxiety nor depression explained any additional variance after accounting for pregnancy-specific anxiety. The findings contribute to the literature supporting an association between pregnancy-specific anxiety and cognitive development and extend our knowledge about the persistence of this effect until middle childhood.     

成人日常问题解决的老化研究

日常问题解决能力是近十几年来老年心理学中研究比较活跃的一个领域。本文介绍了有关日常问题解决研究的四种理论,即心理测量的智力内隐理论、形式后思维的辨证思维理论、信息加工理论和社会认知与智慧理论,及其初步的研究成果,并进一步指出在理论上整合和在实践中开展干预的研究方向。