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The history of science has often been presented as a story of the achievements of geniuses: Galileo, Newton, Maxwell, Darwin,
Einstein. Recently it has become popular to enrich this story by discussing the social contexts and motivations that may have
influenced the work of the genius and its acceptance; or to replace it by accounts of the doings of scientists who have no
claim to genius or to discoveries of universal importance but may be typical members of the scientific community at a particular
time and place. In this article I consider a different type of story, which further research might reveal to be more common
than we now suspect: progress stimulated by gadflies – outspoken critics who challenge the ideas of geniuses, forcing them
to revise and improve those ideas, resulting in new knowledge for which the genius gets the credit while the gadfly is forgotten.
This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date. 相似文献
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Lisa D. Brush 《Sex roles》2005,52(11-12):867-873
This essay organizes the philosophical and political issues raised by researching women’s aggression and violence by posing three questions. What does a research focus on women’s violence and aggression offer feminist scholars and activists? What are the potential hazards of such a focus? What are promising directions for research? To focus on women as aggressors and perpetrators as well as victims sheds light on compelling and difficult questions of gender and violence, especially violence and aggression between intimate partners. It also presents some political pitfalls for the most vigilant researchers, including oversimplification and misinterpretation of complex empirical findings. The author concludes with a call for researchers to follow the lead of the ideas and evidence collected in this special issue. 相似文献
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S von Kluge F R Brush 《Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)》1992,106(3):248-253
Syracuse high- and low-avoidance Long-Evans rats (Rattus norvegicus; SHA/Bru and SLA/Bru) were selectively bred for good and poor active-avoidance learning. However, SLA/Bru animals are superior to SHA/Bru rats in conditioned suppression and passive avoidance learning. In this experiment, saccharin taste and almond odor were the components of a compound conditioned stimulus (flavor) in an illness-induced aversive conditioning paradigm. SLA/Bru rats (n = 17) showed stronger conditioned flavor, taste, and odor aversion than did SHA/Bru animals (n = 18). Unselected Long-Evans rats (n = 18) were intermediate between the selected strains. SLA/Bru and Long-Evans rats showed taste-potentiated odor aversions in this experiment, whereas SHA/Bru animals did not. The results provide evidence that genetic factors, as exemplified by the different strains, are importantly involved in the mechanisms underlying interoceptive and exteroceptive aversive conditioning. 相似文献
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Three groups of rats received either 8, 23, or 53 sessions of multiple variable-interval variable-interval baseline training before being shifted to a multiple extinction variable-interval schedule. The rate of responding during the unaltered component was higher for the groups shifted to multiple extinction variable-interval than for control groups remaining on multiple variable-interval variable-interval (positive contrast). Furthermore, when the multiple variable-interval variable-interval schedule was re-instated, stable negative contrast was found in the groups that had received 23 or 53 baseline sessions, but not for the group that had received only eight sessions. Positive and negative contrast were also demonstrated in the eight and 23-session groups when the multiple extinction variable-interval and multiple variable-interval variable-interval schedules were re-administered in further phases of the experiment. These results suggest that both positive and negative behavioral contrast can be obtained reliably in a species other than the pigeon. 相似文献
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Rapid acquisition of discrete-trial lever-press avoidance: effects of signal-shock interval 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1 下载免费PDF全文
Acquisition of discrete-trial lever-press avoidance learning was studied in three experiments. Experiment I compared a new training procedure, which produces rates of lever-press avoidance learning comparable to those obtained in shuttle boxes, with a “conventional”, less efficient training procedure. A factorial design was used to compare continuous versus intermittent shock and a long-variable versus a short-fixed signal-shock interval. Learning was best in the groups trained with the long and variable interval and poorest in those trained with the short and fixed interval. Type of shock had no effect. Experiment II separated the effects of duration from those of variability of the signal-shock interval. Fixed and variable intervals of 10 and 60 sec were tested and duration was the only significant factor. Experiment III addressed the effect of the differential opportunity to avoid provided by long signal-shock intervals by varying this interval from 10 to 60 sec in 10-sec steps. Only the 10-sec group showed slow acquisition relative to the others. Analysis of avoidance response latencies showed that the distributions for all groups were positively skewed and that skewness increased with increasing duration of the signal-shock interval. At intervals longer than 20 sec, the animals made progressively less use of their increased opportunity to respond. The data do not support the opportunity-to-respond interpretation of the effects of duration of signal-shock interval and suggest that some type of inhibitory process may block lever-press avoidance learning at intervals as short as 10 sec. The significance of these findings for species-specific defense reaction and preparedness theories was emphasized. 相似文献
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F R Brush S N Del Paine L J Pellegrino I M Rykaszewski N K Dess P Y Collins 《Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)》1988,102(4):337-349
The Syracuse strains of Long-Evans rats were selectively bred for good (SHA) or poor (SLA) avoidance learning in a two-way shuttle box, which resulted in a phenotypic difference that is correlated with behavior patterns indicative of emotional reactivity, SLA animals showing evidence of greater emotional reactivity than SHA animals. The first three experiments examined conditioned suppression of bar pressing and compared paired and unpaired conditioned- and unconditioned-stimulus presentations to evaluate the influence of conditioning versus primary aversive stimulation on baseline responding. SLA animals acquired conditioned suppression faster than SHA animals and also showed greater suppression of baseline responding than SHA animals. In Experiment 4, SLA animals learned a passive-avoidance task faster than SHA animals. In Experiment 5, SLA animals showed greater stress-induced suppression of drinking a weak quinine solution than SHA animals. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that SLA animals are more emotionally reactive than SHA animals. 相似文献
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Chris M. Coombe P. Paul Chandanabhumma Prachi Bhardwaj Barbara L. Brush Ella Greene-Moton Megan Jensen Laurie Lachance S.Y. Daniel Lee Melanie Meisenheimer Meredith Minkler Michael Muhammad Angela G. Reyes Zachary Rowe Eliza Wilson-Powers Barbara A. Israel 《American journal of community psychology》2020,66(3-4):427-438
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Qijing Yu Ana M. Daugherty Dana M. Anderson Mayu Nishimura David Brush Amanda Hardwick William Lacey Sarah Raz Noa Ofen 《Developmental science》2018,21(3)
An individual's socioeconomic status (SES) is often viewed as a proxy for a host of environmental influences. SES disparities have been linked to variance in brain structures particularly the hippocampus, a neural substrate of learning and memory. However, it is unclear whether the association between SES and hippocampal volume is similar in children and adults. We investigated the relationship between hippocampal volume and SES in a group of children (n = 31, age 8–12 years) and a group of young adults (n = 32, age 18–25 years). SES was assessed with four indicators that loaded on a single factor, therefore a composite SES scores was used in the main analyses. Hippocampal volume was measured using manual demarcation on high resolution structural images. SES was associated with hippocampal volume in the children, but not in adults, suggesting that in childhood, but not adulthood, SES‐related environmental factors influence hippocampal volume. In addition, hippocampal volume, but not SES, was associated with scores on a memory task, suggesting that net effects of postnatal environmental factors, captured by SES, are more distal determinants of memory performance than hippocampal volume. Longitudinal investigation of the association between SES, hippocampal volume and cognitive functioning may further our understanding of the putative neural mechanisms underlying SES‐related environmental effects on cognitive development. 相似文献