If it is a dog,can it be an animal? the role of metalinguistic knowledge in the acquisition of linguistic superordination

Acquisition of superordinate classification has traditionally been explained in terms of development of class inclusion. More recently, alternative explanations have been put forward by many authors, who consider superordination, as a product of linguistic and metalinguistic acquisitions. An experiment was carried out aimed at understanding the role of metalinguistic knowledge—defined in terms of the nominal realism/nominal relativism distinction. Subjects were 41 children from 7 years 1 month to 8 years 9 months, presented with a free-definition task of objects belonging to familiar categories and a questionnaire regarding the origin of names, their nature, exchangeability, etc. A significant correlation was found between spontaneous definitions of objects and conceptions of the relationships between names and things: Those subjects who are aware of the historical and cultural origin of names (decline of ontological realism) are also able to use superordinates in their definitions. However, superordination is not linked to awareness of the arbitrary nature of the word-referent connection (decline of logical realism).The study was supported by Grants 40% 1984/85 of MPI and 84.01238.08 of CNR.     

Above suspicion: Cognitive and intentional aspects of the ability to lie

This paper looks at the attribution of the ability to lie and not at lying or lies. It also departs from more familiar approaches by focussing on the appraisal of an ability and not on the ability in itself. We believe that this attribution perspective is required to bring out the cognitive and intentional basis of the ability to lie.     

Abstract versus modality-specific memory representations in processing auditory and visual speech

Serial recall of lip-read, auditory, and audiovisual memory lists with and without a verbal suffix was examined. Recency effects were the same in the three presentation modalities. The disrupting effect of a suffix was largest when it was presented in the same modality as the list items. The results suggest that abstract linguistic as well as modality-specific codes play a role in memory for auditory and visual speech.     

Sex-role stereotyping of nurses and physicians on prime-time television: A dichotomy of occupational portrayals

Utilizing the methodology of content analysis, this study investigates the sexrole variables in prime-time television portrayals of nurses and physicians from 1950 to 1980. A 20% sample of 28 relevant series yielded 320 individual episodes, 240 nurse characters, and 287 physicians characters. Results show extreme levels of both sexual and occupational stereotyping. Television nurses are 99% female, and television physicians are 95% male. The cluster of sex and occupational role characteristics, personality attributes, primary values, career orientation, professional competencies, and the tone of nurse-physician relationships converge to yield an image of the female professional nurse as totally dependent on and subservient to male physicians. The development of this dichotomous sex and occupational role imagery has resulted in male television physicians who not only have outstanding medical competencies but also embrace all the attractive competencies of professional nurses. Television nurses largely serve as window dressing on the set and have little opportunity to contribute to patient welfare. Action is needed to improve the quality of nurse portrayals by making them more congruent with the real world of work in health care.This study was supported by a research grant from the U.S. Public Health Service, Health Resources Administration (NU 00579).     

Effects of Self-Correction on the Acquisition, Maintenance, and Generalization of the Written Spelling of Elementary School Children

We examined the effect of self-correction on the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of written spelling of elementary school students attending an after-school clinic. Six students registered for remedial tutoring participated. During self-correction, students initially learned four proofreading marks and a procedure for using them that were subsequently applied as the students compared their spelling to a model. Results showed a functional effect between self-correction and improved student performance on target words. Using the self-correction procedure, the students spelled at least 98% of the target words accurately, maintained at least 85% of the correctly spelled words, and generalized at least 70% of the words at home, in context, and with word variations. Questionnaires administered to the students, their parents, and teachers indicated that students preferred self-correction. Parents noticed academic improvements in their child's spelling performance as well as positive changes in attitude toward school. Most teachers did not notice changes in spelling performance or attitude.     

The relationship between auditory recall and dysfluency in young stutterers

This study examined the relationship between auditory recall and dysfluent behavior in children. Subjects were 11 stutterers and 11 nonstutterers, ages 4.9–11.10. The Auditory Sequential Memory subtest of the ITPA and the Auditory Attention Span for Related Syllables subtest of the Detroit Test of Learning Aptitudes were administered to both groups. Results indicated that scores on the ITPA were not significantly different. Comparison of the group's scores on the DTLA were highly significant with the control group's scoring 35 months higher. After 6 months of therapy, six children in the experimental group were fluent. Posttests revealed no significant differences on the ITPA. On the DTLA, the experimental group's mean scores significantly increased by 13.9 months. The gain in auditory recall of meaningful material substantiated the hypothesized relationship between auditory recall and dysfluency. This relationship was not viewed as causative of stuttering; data were interpreted as evidence that increased fluency allows children to use previously suppressed linguistic data.     

The Cross-Modal Coordination of Interpersonal Timing: Six-Week-Olds Infants' Gaze with Adults' Vocal Behavior

The purpose of this study was to examine the hypothesis that 6-week-old infants are capable of coordinated interpersonal timing within social interactions. Coordinated interpersonal timing refers to changes in the timing of one individual's behavior as a function of the timing of another individual's behavior. Each of 45, first-born 6-week-old infants interacted with his or her mother and a stranger for a total of 14 minutes. The interactions were videotaped and coded for the gaze behavior of the infants and the vocal behavior of the mothers and strangers. Time-series regression analyses were used to assess the extent to which the timing of each of the infants' gazes was coordinated with the timing of the adults' vocal behavior. The results revealed that (a) coordinated timing occurs between infants and their mothers and between infants and strangers as early as when infants are 6 weeks old, and (b) strangers coordinated the timing of their pauses with the infants to a greater extent than did mothers. The findings are discussed in terms of the role of temporal sensitivity in social interaction.     

Amygdala and periaqueductal gray lesions only partially attenuate unconditional defensive responses in rats exposed to a cat

Defensive responses to a cat were observed in rats given excitotoxic lesions of the central nucleus of the amygdala (ACe), dorsolateral periaqueductal gray (dlPAG), ventral periaqueductal gray (vPAG), or sham lesions. Rats were placed adjacent to a compartment containing a cat. Sham-lesioned rats avoided the area nearest the cat and preferred the area furthest away from the cat. They also exhibited numerous defensive responses including, climbing, escape from the apparatus, and freezing. Rats with lesions of the ACe reacted like the sham lesioned rats by preferring the area of the apparatus furthest from the cat, however they climbed and escaped significantly less than sham lesioned rats. Avoidance of the area adjacent to the cat was attenuated in rats with lesions of the vPAG. Climbing along the walls of the apparatus was also attenuated in rats with lesions of the vPAG. Escapes from the apparatus were not significantly reduced by lesions of the vPAG and dlPAG. Thus, ACe lesions attenuated climbing and eliminated escapes, but did not impair locomotion of the rat away from the cat.