Modification of preschool sex-typed behaviors by participation in adult-structured activities

Earlier studies have shown the girls spend more time than boys in activities that are highly structured by adults. Structured activities may encourage feminine sex-typed behaviors such as compliance to adults; low-structure activities may encourage masculine sex-typed behaviors such as independence and assertiveness. In the present study the effects of high or low levels of adult structuring on children's social behavior during preschool free-play activities were tested in a field experiment carried out during an entire semester in one preschool classroom. For the first 15 minutes of free play, children were assigned to high- or low-structure activities. As predicted, when children were in high-structure activities, they exhibited high rates of bids for recognition and compliance to adults; in low-structure activities, they exhibited peer-directed leadership, bids for recognition, and compliance. There were no generalized effects of these treatments on their subsequent free choice of activities or social behavior. The study demonstrates powerful effects of naturally occurring variations in children's play activities on sex-typed social behaviors.     

When celebrities talk,children listen: An experimental analysis of children's responses to TV ads with celebrity endorsement

Two studies tested the effects of TV ads with celebrity endorsement on the product preference and understanding of 8- to 14-year-old boys. Study 1 compared two ads for a model racer. One had celebrity endorsement (by a famous race driver) and footage of real automobile racing featuring the celebrity (live action); the second had neither feature. Study 2 employed one ad for a different brand of model racer edited to generate a 2 (endorser presence) by 2 (inclusion of live racetrack action) factorial design. A total of 415 boys were exposed to one of the experimental ads or a control ad, embedded in a new animated children's adventure program. Preference for the advertised brand of model racer (pre- and postviewing) and a number of cognitive variables were assessed. Exposure to endorsement led to increased preference for the toy and belief that the celebrity was expert about the toy. Live action led to exaggerated estimates of the physical properties of the toy and the belief that the ad was not staged. The 8- to 10-year-olds associated the glamour of the endorser with the toy and were more reliant on his advice than were 11- to 14-year-olds. However, the two age groups were not differentially affected by the ads. Contrary to the speculation of many researchers, understanding about advertising intent and techniques and cynicism about ads had almost no influence on product preference after viewing.     

A Non-Verbal Technique for Assessing Frustration Response in Pre-School Children

The present study represents a report of the initial development of a picture method for assessing response to frustration in preschool children. Study 1 (N = 91) included the initial development of the picture materials; it also produced some validational support for the picture method in the form of significant correlations between picture choices and extensive behavior observations. Study 2 (N = 49) was designed to be essentially a replication of Study 1. In addition, further validational support was sought through the correlation of picture choices with global teacher ratings of the behaviors of interest.     

Gender-Role Cognition in Three-Year-Old Boys and Girls

Although the multidimensionality of gender roles has been well established, few researchers have investigated male and female roles separately. Because of the substantial differences in the ways male and female roles are portrayed in our culture, boys and girls may think and learn about these roles differently. The male role is more clearly defined, more highly valued, and more salient than the female role; thus, children's cognitions about these two roles may be expected to differ. The present study addressed the question of whether there is sex-typical variation in gender labeling, gender-role knowledge, and schematicity. Participants were 120 families; 15% were from minority ethnic groups, and 17% were single-parent families; 25% of the parents had a high school education or less. Results indicated that at 36 months of age, boys were less able to label gender and less knowledgeable about gender roles than were girls. Boys' knew more about male stereotypes than female stereotypes, whereas girls knew considerably more than boys about the female role and as much as boys about the male role. Boys and girls were found to be similar in gender schematicity. Traditionality of parental attitudes regarding child-rearing and maternal employment were not strongly related to children's gender cognition.     

A case study of traumatic stress disorder in a 5‐month‐old infant following surgery

This case study of a 5‐month‐old infant describes the symptoms of trauma following a surgical procedure (cranial remodeling) with short‐term hospital stay. The infant showed a symptomatology similar to that found in other studies of hospitalization during the preverbal period, and fit the diagnosis of traumatic stress disorder according to the DC:0‐3. The therapy was implemented by the parents in consultation with the author. The approach was based on an exposure therapy model (flooding) using a somatic trauma trigger that occurred spontaneously in the context of a normal caretaking routine. The infant was allowed to have a full‐blown emotional response during several treatment sessions. The outcome was positive, with the disappearance of some symptoms of traumatic stress disorder after the first week, and no remaining symptoms after two months. Periodic follow‐up evaluations for one year revealed normal development with no return of symptoms. The symptoms, treatment, and outcomes are discussed in the context of behavioral learning theory and emotional processing theory. The role of crying during flooding therapy is discussed, and an emotional release theory emphasizing the therapeutic value of crying is proposed. Six cautionary guidelines are offered for the use of intense exposure therapy with infants.     

School readiness and later achievement

Using 6 longitudinal data sets, the authors estimate links between three key elements of school readiness--school-entry academic, attention, and socioemotional skills--and later school reading and math achievement. In an effort to isolate the effects of these school-entry skills, the authors ensured that most of their regression models control for cognitive, attention, and socioemotional skills measured prior to school entry, as well as a host of family background measures. Across all 6 studies, the strongest predictors of later achievement are school-entry math, reading, and attention skills. A meta-analysis of the results shows that early math skills have the greatest predictive power, followed by reading and then attention skills. By contrast, measures of socioemotional behaviors, including internalizing and externalizing problems and social skills, were generally insignificant predictors of later academic performance, even among children with relatively high levels of problem behavior. Patterns of association were similar for boys and girls and for children from high and low socioeconomic backgrounds.     

Activity Level and Sex-Stereotyped Toy Choice in Toddler Boys and Girls

In the first study, the motor activity level and vigor of play of 52 toddlers was assessed as they played with a set of sex-role stereotyped and neutral toys. Boys and girls showed the same level of activity, and both were significantly more active when playing with stereotypically masculine toys. In the second study, 27 toddlers were observed playing with toys defined as potentially eliciting high, medium, or low activity within the masculine, feminine, and neutral categories. Again, boys and girls did not differ in overall activity level. All children preferred toys that allowed moderate to high activity, but given this preference, they selected toys stereotyped for their own gender above those stereotyped for the other gender.     

Sex-typed play of toddlers in a day care center

By the age of 3, boys prefer gross motor and vehicle play and girls prefer doll and housekeeping play. The present study was an attempt to define the age at which these sex differences first appear by observing the play behavior of one- and two-year-olds in a day care center. We observed use of stereotyped toys in children 15 to 35 months old during free play. Boys played more with the masculine toys than with either of the other types, whereas girls showed almost equal use of all three types. Choice of sex-typed toys was more prevalent among older boys, while older girls showed less play with feminine toys than younger girls.     

Racial discrimination-induced anger and alcohol use among black adolescents

This study explored whether a relationship exists between anger among Black adolescents that has been provoked by racial discrimination, and alcohol consumption. Participants consisted of 134 Black adolescents from 14 to 18 years of age, residing in northeast Texas. All participants were administered a questionnaire measuring whether and the extent to which they might be dependent upon alcohol, a background information questionnaire which included questions about their drinking pattern, and a measure designed to assess the extent to which they feel angry either because they had been discriminated against or observed other Blacks being discriminated against or observed other Blacks being discriminated against in various situations. Only gender was found to be predictive of scores on the dependency scale. However gender, age, and racial discrimination anger scores were found to be predictive of the amount of alcohol consumed by the participants. Some implications for theory, research, and intervention are suggested.