Development and initial validation of an indirect measure of transformational leadership integrity

An indirect measure of transformational leadership integrity was developed across three studies. In Study 1, the transformational leadership integrity implicit association test (TLI-IAT) was developed and tested with 65 leaders across heterogeneous organizational contexts. Study 2 involved 51 coaches from 18 sports. Results from Studies 1 and 2 supported the construct validity of the instrument, providing evidence of the instrument's convergent and discriminant validity. Study 3 involved 32 coaches and 133 players from six sports. Findings supported the criterion validity of the measure, providing evidence for the instrument's predictive validity. In sum, evidence is presented that supports the TLI-IATs construct and criterion validity. As such, the present research has made significant advancements to the transformational leadership integrity literature and provides researchers with an indirect measure of automatic transformational leadership integrity self-attitudes.     

单一因果关系因果力判断研究述评

简单因果归纳包括自下而上的材料驱动的加工和自上而下的因果知识驱动加工两个方面。简单因果归纳的多数理论模型强调自下而上的材料驱动的加工,这些模型又存在联想解释与计算解释的基本区分。最后,概述了单一因果关系因果力判断研究的基本问题：因果力判断的主要影响因素和过程机制、研究的方法问题。     

On the Validity of Idiographic and Generic Self‐Concept Implicit Association Tests: A Core‐Concept Model

We present a core‐concept model (CCM) suggesting that stimulus centrality is an important factor in category representations in implicit measures. We tested the hypothesis that idiographic stimuli (first name, birthday) are more central and therefore assess self‐concept in Implicit Association Tests (IATs) more validly than generic and nonspecific stimuli (me, you). Superior validity of the idiographic variant emerged across three different domains of self‐concept. First, an idiographic self‐esteem IAT displayed higher correlations than a generic IAT with self‐assessments and observer‐assessments of self‐esteem. Second, an idiographic body scheme‐IAT predicted subjective ratings of body image and objective body‐mass index. Third, an idiographic aggressiveness‐IAT had higher incremental validity for unprovoked aggression when interacting with explicit measures of aggressiveness. We conclude that idiographic stimuli focus participants' attention on the core features of the self, hence, tapping into self‐related associations to a stronger degree than generic stimuli. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Episodic intertrial learning of younger and older participants: Effects of age of acquisition

There is clear evidence of a deficit in episodic memory for older adults compared to younger adults. Using an intertrial technique previous research has investigated whether this deficit can be attributed to a decline in encoding or consolidation. On standard memory tests, these two aspects of memory function can be measured by examining the items forgotten or acquired across multiple learning trials. The present study assessed whether age deficits in episodic memory were affected by stimulus characteristics, specifically age of acquisition (AoA). A standard intertrial design was implemented whereby participants studied word lists over several study-test trials. The stimulus characteristics of AoA were manipulated using a pure-list technique. Our findings showed that older adults demonstrate an overall recall deficit which appeared to be a consequence of both an encoding deficit and consolidation weakness. Earlier-acquired words were recalled significantly better than later-acquired words and this was apparently due to both enhanced encoding and consolidation of earlier- over later-acquired words. The key finding is that older adults show a recall advantage for earlier- compared to later-acquired words over the entire experiment to a greater degree than younger adults.     

Eye movements during mental time travel follow a diagonal line

Recent research showed that past events are associated with the back and left side, whereas future events are associated with the front and right side of space. These spatial–temporal associations have an impact on our sensorimotor system: thinking about one’s past and future leads to subtle body sways in the sagittal dimension of space (Miles, Nind, & Macrae, 2010). In this study we investigated whether mental time travel leads to sensorimotor correlates in the horizontal dimension of space. Participants were asked to mentally displace themselves into the past or future while measuring their spontaneous eye movements on a blank screen. Eye gaze was directed more rightward and upward when thinking about the future than when thinking about the past. Our results provide further insight into the spatial nature of temporal thoughts, and show that not only body, but also eye movements follow a (diagonal) “time line” during mental time travel.     

Task instructions determine the visuospatial and verbal–spatial nature of number–space associations

Evidence for number–space associations comes from the spatial–numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect, consisting in faster reaction times to small/large digits with the left/right hand, respectively. Two different proposals are commonly discussed concerning the cognitive origin of the SNARC effect: the visuospatial account and the verbal–spatial account. Recent studies have provided evidence for the relative dominance of verbal–spatial over visuospatial coding mechanisms, when both mechanisms were directly contrasted in a magnitude comparison task. However, in these studies, participants were potentially biased towards verbal–spatial number processing by task instructions based on verbal–spatial labels. To overcome this confound and to investigate whether verbal–spatial coding mechanisms are predominantly activated irrespective of task instructions, we completed the previously used paradigm by adding a spatial instruction condition. In line with earlier findings, we could confirm the predominance of verbal–spatial number coding under verbal task instructions. However, in the spatial instruction condition, both verbal–spatial and visuospatial mechanisms were activated to an equal extent. Hence, these findings clearly indicate that the cognitive origin of number–space associations does not always predominantly rely on verbal–spatial processing mechanisms, but that the spatial code associated with numbers is context dependent.     

Changes in Movement Variables Associated With Transient Overshoot of the Final Position

Transient overshoot (TO), which is assessed as the distance between the movement amplitude and the final position, was measured in a series of rapid, discrete elbow flexion movements performed under different distance and loading conditions by 7 participants. A positive relationship was found between kinematic variables (peak velocity, peak acceleration and deceleration, and the symmetry ratio) and the magnitude of TO, particularly in short movements performed against a light load. The relationships between TO and electromyographic (EMG) variables were low and mainly insignificant. Thus, TO contributes to the variability of rapid, discrete movements and therefore should be taken into account as an additional parameter in studies of the scaling of movement variables with movement mechanical conditions. TO could also represent a consequence of mechanical properties of the single-joint system rather than an independently programmed primary submovement.     

Pre-Motor and Motor Reaction Time Differences Associated with Stretching of the Hamstring Muscles

Pre-motor and motor RT scores were obtained from 24 male Ss using a knee flexion task. It was predicted that an increased arousal state due to proprioceptive feedback from stretched hamstring muscles would shorten pre-motor RT while motor RT would shorten because of changes in muscle tension development due to changes in the series elastic and/or contractile components of the muscle tissue. A finger RT task was also included in order to determine whether other factors not related to changes in the stretch of the hamstring muscles were operative. Motor RT decreased with increased muscle stretch and constituted 46% of leg RT. Pre-motor RT as well as finger RT increased rather than decreased with increased muscle stretch. No relationship was found between pre-motor and motor RT indicating that lags in CNS processing are independent of lags associated with the rate of muscular tension development.