Positive and negative contrast as a function of component duration for key pecking and treadle pressing

Pigeons responded on several multiple schedules for food reinforcers. The duration of the components varied from four seconds to 16 minutes. The absolute size of positive (Experiment 1) and negative (Experiment 2) behavioral contrast varied inversely with component duration when key pecks produced the reinforcers. The absolute size of negative contrast varied directly with component duration, when treadle presses produced the reinforcers (Experiment 3). These results conform to theories that suggest that positive and negative contrast are symmetrical when pigeons peck keys. They also conform to theories that suggest that the same principles do not govern contrast when pigeons peck keys as when they press treadles. Finally, the results support the measurement of behavioral contrast by the differences between baseline rates of responding and the rates emitted when contrast is present.     

On quantifying different types of categorical data

In quantifying categorical data, constraints play an important role in characterizing the outcome. In the Guttman-type quantification of contingency tables and multiple-choice data (incidence data), the trivial solution due to the marginal constraints is typically removed before quantification; this removal, however, has the effect of distorting the shape of the total space. Awareness of this is important for the interpretation of the quantified outcome. The present study provides some relevant formulas for those cases that are affected by the trivial solution and those cases that are not. The characterization of the total space used by the Guttman-type quantification and pertinent discussion are presented.This study was supported by a grant from The Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada to S. Nishisato.     

Behavioral contrast for key pecking as a function of component duration when only one component varies

Pigeons pecked keys for food reinforcers delivered by multiple variable-interval 2-min variable-interval 2-min schedules. Positive behavioral contrast was created by changing one component to extinction; negative contrast was achieved by changing one component to a variable-interval 15-s schedule. The duration of each component was varied independently of the other from 5 to 960 s. The size of positive contrast was greatest when the extinction component was 30 or 60 s long. It did not change significantly with changes in the duration of the variable-interval 2-min component. The absolute size of negative contrast decreased with increases in the duration of the variable-interval 2-min component. It did not change significantly with changes in the duration of the variable-interval 15-s component. These results show that the size of contrast is determined primarily by the duration of the component that provides the less favorable conditions of reinforcement. These results are not predicted by current theories.     

Component analysis with different sets of constraints on different dimensions

Many of the classical multivariate data analysis and multidimensional scaling techniques call for approximations by lower dimensional configurations. A model is proposed, in which different sets of linear constraints are imposed on different dimensions in component analysis and classical multidimensional scaling frameworks. A simple, efficient, and monotonically convergent algorithm is presented for fitting the model to the data by least squares. The basic algorithm is extended to cover across-dimension constraints imposed in addition to the dimensionwise constraints, and to the case of a symmetric data matrix. Examples are given to demonstrate the use of the method.The work reported in this paper has been supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, grant number A6394, and by the McGill-IBM Cooperative Grant, both granted to the first author. The research of H. A. L. Kiers has been made possible by a fellowship of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. We thank Michael Hunter for his helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper.     

Effects of different types of analogy instruction on the performance and inter-joint coordination of novice darts learners

ObjectivesAnalogy instruction has an advantage on motor skill learning. The effect of analogy instructional type on kinematics, particularly on inter-joint coordination, is an extremely understudied area of research. Against this background, this paper experimentally controlled the quality and quantity of the to-be-learned information included in instruction and applied principal component analysis (PCA) to time-series data of joint angles to examine whether different instruction methods could change inter-joint coordination structure.Methods and designForty-five novice participants, fifteen each for three independent groups, performed dart-throwing training with either explicit, rule-based biomechanical metaphor (RBM), or information-integrated biomechanical metaphor (IIM) instructions. Performance and kinematics were evaluated in pre-test, retention test, and transfer test that can increase psychological pressure. The dependent variables were performance outcome, joint variability, and measurements derived from PCA.ResultsAnalyses revealed a significant test effect for the performance outcome, joint variability, and PCA measurements. No significant group effect or group–test interaction was found for the performance outcome and joint variability. Significant test effect and test–group interaction were found for the wrist PC1 loading. The IIM group means significantly increased in the retention and transfer tests. The explicit and RBM group means showed no significant effects of the test. These results suggest that IIM learners significantly changed the PCA structure in the retention test and maintained it in the transfer test, whereas explicit and RBM learners did not.ConclusionsThe findings provide the first insight into the effects of information-integrated biomechanical metaphors on the acquisition of inter-joint coordination structures for novice learners.     

认知负荷与编码方式对前瞻记忆及其成分的影响

实验1探究认知负荷（高、低）与编码方式（标准、书写、执行意向）对前瞻记忆的影响,实验2进一步探究其对前瞻记忆两种成分的影响。实验1显示执行意向与书写编码的正确率高于标准编码,而前二者无差异;低负荷的前瞻记忆表现好于高负荷。实验2显示执行意向与书写编码的前瞻成分正确率高于标准编码,而前二者无差异;低负荷的前瞻成分表现好于高负荷;不同认知负荷与编码方式均对回溯成分无影响。结果表明：在意向内容相对简单的情况下,执行意向与书写编码对前瞻记忆的促进作用主要表现在促进前瞻成分的提取,低负荷比高负荷有利于前瞻记忆的成功执行,主要体现在前瞻成分成功率更高。     

Criteria instability and the isolated option effect

In two-stage choices, decision makers often compare a new (isolated) option with the winner from the first stage. Previous research has identified a choice advantage for an isolated option, ostensibly due to loss aversion. We propose an alternative mechanism suggesting that instability of the criteria used in each choice stage is the main driver of the isolated option effect. Results from a series of experiments support the criteria instability account and not loss aversion as the explanation for the isolated option effect.     

中央执行负荷对成人估算策略运用的影响

随机选取128名大学生为被试, 运用选择/无选法研究范式, 考察了不同中央执行负荷对估算策略运用的影响。结果发现：(1)中央执行负荷不影响策略分布; (2)策略运用条件、中央执行负荷影响策略执行。主次一致任务, 负荷对策略执行反应时的影响随负荷强度增大而增大, 对策略执行精确度影响不大; 而对主次不一致任务, 低负荷对策略执行反应时及精确度影响都不明显; (3)策略运用条件、中央执行负荷影响策略选择。负荷强度对策略选择反应时起重要作用, 只有当次级任务负荷高时, 干扰作用才明显; (4)成人的策略选择适应性受负荷强度的影响。无负荷条件下个体策略适应性更好。     

Emergence of representational activity during the early drawing stage: process analysis

This study analyzed the process underlying the emergence of representational drawing. Eighty-seven children aged 1–3 years were asked to color or draw either a simple picture (P) or a contour for an object (DC) in a shared task. After that, they were asked to draw their mother on a blank sheet of paper in a no drawn contour task (NC). Whereas 1½- and 2-year-olds were more successful in the P task than in the DC task, the 2½- and 3-year-olds were successful in both. The 2-year-olds were better in the DC than the NC task. The results show that 1½- and 2-year-olds can extract the component parts of a drawing even though they cannot produce them and children over 2½ years old can organize these components into a drawing by themselves. These findings indicate that representational drawing is based on the extraction of the component parts and the acquisition of the drawing ability to combine the parts into a drawing and that the beginnings of representational drawing are found in 1½- and 2-year-old children.