Further examination of factors that influence preference for positive versus negative reinforcement

Factors that influence choice between qualitatively different reinforcers (e.g., a food item or a break from work) are important to consider when arranging treatments for problem behavior. Previous findings indicate that children who engage in problem behavior maintained by escape from demands may choose a food item over the functional reinforcer during treatment (DeLeon, Neidert, Anders, & Rodriguez-Catter, 2001; Lalli et al., 1999). However, a number of variables may influence choice between concurrently available forms of reinforcement. An analogue for treatment situations in which positive reinforcement for compliance is in direct competition with negative reinforcement for problem behavior was used in the current study to evaluate several variables that may influence choice. Participants were 5 children who had been diagnosed with developmental disabilities and who engaged in problem behavior maintained by escape from demands. In the first phase, the effects of task preference and schedule of reinforcement on choice between a 30-s break and a high-preference food item were evaluated. The food item was preferred over the break, regardless of the preference level of the task or the reinforcement schedule, for all but 1 participant. In the second phase, the quality of the break was manipulated by combining escape with toys, attention, or both. Only 1 participant showed preference for the enriched break. In the third phase, choice of a medium- or low-preference food item versus the enriched break was evaluated. Three of 4 participants showed preference for the break over the less preferred food item. Results extend previous research by identifying some of the conditions under which individuals who engage in escape-maintained behavior will prefer a food reinforcer over the functional one.     

Enhanced spatial ability in aged dogs following dietary and behavioural enrichment

We examined the benefits of a broad spectrum antioxidant diet and enrichment comprised of physical exercise, environmental stimulants and cognitive testing, on spatial memory performance in beagle dogs. Both aged (N=48) and young (N=16) beagle dogs (Canus familiaris) were tested yearly on a three-component delayed non-match to position spatial task for three consecutive years. The results showed that young enriched animals acquired the task in fewer sessions, made fewer errors, responded slower and made fewer positional responses, compared to aged enriched animals. An analysis restricted to aged animals revealed that antioxidant administration and enrichment resulted in fewer errors, slower responses and decreased positional responses, particularly in Year 3. Finally, cohort differences emerged, which exemplify the significance of early environmental intervention. Aged dogs that were housed with other animals and exposed to an outdoor environment in early development displayed greater benefits from both interventions. These findings indicate that long-term dietary intervention and enrichment can buffer age-associated cognitive decline.     

大学生自我复杂性与主观幸福感的关系

对188名大学生采用生活满意度量表和情感量表测量主观幸福感,运用与Linville相近的方式测量自我复杂性,并探讨两者的关系。研究发现:(1)积极自我复杂性与消极自我复杂性相互独立。(2)积极自我复杂性和消极自我复杂性与主观幸福感有着不同的关系。(3)自我复杂性测量时积极词汇与消极词汇的比例以及幸福感测量工具的不同都可能使两者关系出现不同结果。     

在心理治疗中审视积极与消极情绪的关系及作用

心理治疗中长期存在两种倾向：力图减少消极情绪、认为这样可以自动增加积极情绪。该文分析并总结了有关积极与消极情绪的关系及作用的实证研究和综述,主要得出三个结论：1）积极与消极情绪有三种关系：负相关、相互独立、部分重合,具体表现出哪种关系要视实际情况而定。2）过多的积极情绪对认知、行为、健康有消极作用。3）适当的消极情绪对认知、行为、健康有积极作用。因此,在进行心理治疗或研究时,应根据实际情况．明确对象并选择正确方法。     

When self-disclosure goes awry: Negative consequences of revealing personal failures for lower self-esteem individuals

Despite the potential benefits of self-disclosure, individuals with lower self-esteem (LSEs) tend to avoid self-revelations. The present study investigated the role of self-esteem in predicting detrimental responses to the disclosure of a personal failure. We employed a novel experimental design where all participants experienced a lab-induced stressor (failure feedback on a competence test) and half were randomly assigned to disclose this information to their dating partner. In contrast to LSEs who concealed the personal failure, LSEs who disclosed the failure reported several negative consequences that may further contribute to relationship-based distress. However, individuals higher in self-esteem (HSEs) benefitted from disclosing the personal failure in comparison to LSEs who disclosed and HSEs who concealed the failure. We discuss the consequences of disclosing personal failures to partners for HSEs and LSEs.     

AGGRESSION AS POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT IN MICE UNDER VARIOUS RATIO‐ AND TIME‐BASED REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES

There is evidence suggesting aggression may be a positive reinforcer in many species. However, only a few studies have examined the characteristics of aggression as a positive reinforcer in mice. Four types of reinforcement schedules were examined in the current experiment using male Swiss CFW albino mice in a resident—intruder model of aggression as a positive reinforcer. A nose poke response on an operant conditioning panel was reinforced under fixed‐ratio (FR 8), fixed‐interval (FI 5‐min), progressive ratio (PR 2), or differential reinforcement of low rate behavior reinforcement schedules (DRL 40‐s and DRL 80‐s). In the FR conditions, nose pokes were maintained by aggression and extinguished when the aggression contingency was removed. There were long postreinforcement pauses followed by bursts of responses with short interresponse times (IRTs). In the FI conditions, nose pokes were maintained by aggression, occurred more frequently as the interval elapsed, and extinguished when the contingency was removed. In the PR conditions, nose pokes were maintained by aggression, postreinforcement pauses increased as the ratio requirement increased, and responding was extinguished when the aggression contingency was removed. In the DRL conditions, the nose poke rate decreased, while the proportional distributions of IRTs and postreinforcement pauses shifted toward longer durations as the DRL interval increased. However, most responses occurred before the minimum IRT interval elapsed, suggesting weak temporal control of behavior. Overall, the findings suggest aggression can be a positive reinforcer for nose poke responses in mice on ratio‐ and time‐based reinforcement schedules.     

The effects of total sleep deprivation on recognition memory processes: A study of event-related potential

This study examined the memorization of information after a night of normal sleep and total sleep deprivation (TSD) by means of event-related potentials (ERPs). We expected a disfacilitatory effect of TSD on memory processing. Eighteen subjects were tested twice in a counterbalanced fashion. During the study session, subjects were presented with unfamiliar face stimuli and asked to memorize them for a subsequent memory test. At the test session, the subjects were presented with the studied faces intermixed with “new” faces and asked to indicate the previously presented stimuli. The N100 was used as a covariate to control for the differences in level of vigilance between the two sessions. Sleep deprivation decreased subjects’ ability to discriminate new from previously studied stimuli and decreased the peak amplitude of the early component (N200) to the decrement of performance. In addition, following TSD the amplitude of the late frontal component (LFC), which is thought to reflect contextual processing, was decreased in covariance with the N100 vigilance component. The amplitude of the late posterior component (LPC/P600) was also reduced but was unrelated to the vigilance component of the ERP. Based on prior studies, this LPC reduction can be interpreted to indicate a decrease in information retrieved after TSD. In summary, a night of TSD decreased the amplitude of the ERPs associated with complex episodic memory task stimuli, affected the frontal cortex during episodic retrieval, and prevented the elaboration process. Furthermore, there was an inability to discriminate what is and what is not in memory, possibly due to less local processing of details.     

Zhuangzi the Poet: Re-Reading the Peng Bird Image

The image of the Peng bird, which opens the Zhuangzi text, is not the product of metaphysical reasoning. An inspiring example of soaring up and going beyond, the image is used to broaden the outlook of the small mind; its function is thus more therapeutic than instructional. With its rich poetic and experiential content, the image of the Peng refuses to be reduced to an abstract concept, or a mere signifier of certain philosophical position. Misreading of the image results from any attempt to accurately “size up” its philosophical implication by measuring it quantitatively against a spectrum of positions and values. To see only the superficial “inconsistencies” in Zhuangzi’s argument and to read the wind under the Peng’s wings as a handicap that it needs to overcome in order to embark on its “free and easy wandering” is, in the name of logic and “consistency,” to ignore the big picture Zhuangzi presents.     

New developments in emotion regulation with an emphasis on the positive spectrum of human functioning

There is converging evidence from several psychological fields on the ways in which individuals engage in specific strategies to modify, alter, or accept their emotional experiences to obtain more desirable outcomes. The current Special Issue is dedicated to a series of examinations on how these self-regulatory strategies can promote resilience, create and sustain positive moods and intrinsic motivation, and aid in the repair of different negative emotions. The content of these articles are briefly reviewed in the context of additional ideas for scientific advancements in understanding and developing positive health.     

不同适应水平小学生有意义事件报告比较——小学生自我调节机制的一项研究

本研究选取发展良好与适应不良的三——五年级小学生为被试,以问卷访谈形式调查他们心目中的正性和负性意义事件。结果表明,两组被试在事件意义体验的人际亲和性、内在一外在性和丰富性方面有明显不同的反映。感受的丰富性表现在正负性意义事件两方面,某种事件负性意义感受的出现是良好适应的表现。