CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE MATCHING TO SAMPLE AND SPELLING INSTRUCTION

The development of interactive programmed instruction using a microcomputer as a teaching machine is described. The program applied a constructed-response matching-to-sample procedure to computer-assisted spelling instruction and review. On each trial, subjects were presented with a sample stimulus and a choice pool consisting of 10 individual letters. In initial training, sample stimuli were arrays of letters, and subjects were taught to construct identical arrays by touching the matching letters in the choice pool. After generalized constructed-response identity matching was established, pictures (line drawings) of common objects were presented as samples. At first, correct spelling was prompted by also presenting the printed name to be “copied” via identity matching; then the prompts were faded out. The program was implemented with 2 mentally retarded individuals. Assessment trials determined appropriate words for training. Correct spelling was established via the prompt-fading procedure; training trials were interspersed among baseline trials that reviewed and maintained spelling of previously learned words. As new words were learned, they were added to a cumulative baseline to generate an individualized review and practice battery for each subject.     

FIELD REPLICATION OF CLASSWIDE PEER TUTORING

We conducted a large-scale field replication study of classwide peer tutoring applied to spelling instruction (Greenwood, Delquadri, & Hall, 1984). Two hundred and eleven inner-city students in four schools participated during their first- and second-grade school years. The effects of classwide peer tutoring were compared to teacher instructional procedures and pretest probes using a group replication design (Barlow, Hayes, & Nelson, 1984). Analysis of group and individual results indicated that (a) both teacher instructional procedures and classwide peer tutoring were effective in increasing spelling performance above pretest levels, (b) peer tutoring produced statistically greater gains relative to the teachers' procedures for both low and high student groups formed on pretest levels, (c) these outcomes were representative of groups, classes, individuals, and years during the project, and (d) participant satisfaction with the program was generally high. A separate analysis of the social importance of treatment outcome revealed differential findings for low and high groups related to pretest levels. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Reading words with irregular decoding rules: A test of premorbid cognitive function?

The present study investigated the relation between level of general cognitive function and the oral reading of irregular words in Swedish. Swedish is an orthographically regular language, so many irregular words are loan words from other languages. A test comprising such words (irregularly spelled words (ISW)) was designed, and tested on a sample of 48 healthy Swedish adults, stratified according to age, gender, and level of education. The results confirmed that the ability to read words that do not follow the regular rules for decoding in Swedish was positively related to general cognitive level. ISW in combination with demographic variables gave a good estimate of general cognitive function and a better estimate than demographic variables alone. Exposure to written and spoken vocabulary during the lifespan may be indexed by ISW performance, for factor analysis suggested that this may constitute a discrete factor contributing to cognitive function.     

中国人的求同心理

求同是中国人传统且特有的思维方式。中国人的求同主要表现为从众行为、标准答案“情结”、“听话”教养观和平均主义观念;究其原因,是中国人的尚和心态、关系自我、传统农业经济和封建社会的“大一统”思想造成的;求同心理在增强民族凝聚力抵抗外来侵略、继承传统美德方面发挥积极作用的同时,也给中国人带来了忽略个体、缺乏独立和创造性及容易迷失自我的消极影响;可通过加强逻辑思维、分析思维和自省的认知方式、服从真理而不是权威、批判地继承传统等途径避免求同心理的消极影响。     

Written lists as mediating stimuli in the matching-to-sample performances of individuals with mental retardation.

Students with mental retardation learned to write lists in order to perform a matching task that they could not do otherwise. After an initial assessment phase, reinforcement was arranged in the computerized tasks to follow selection of the six pictures that were identical to those in the six-picture samples presented. In Study 1, even though the participants wrote a list of the names of the six sample pictures on each trial, read a list, or did both, they often made errors when a brief delay preceded picture selection. In contrast, performance was nearly perfect when a list was written, read, and remained available at the time of picture selection, suggesting that the list served to mediate the delays. Study 2 examined the stimulus control by two- and six-picture samples over the list writing. Early during testing, 1 participant refrained from writing lists on two-picture trials but wrote lists on six-picture trials, thereby maximizing reinforcement and minimizing its delay; the other participant showed this pattern of list writing after supplemental training. The studies suggest methods for establishing a rudimentary repertoire of mediating behavior that has relevance for teaching instruction-following skills in natural settings.     

加强中西医药结合 促进中药现代化

在２１世纪生命科学的发展和回归自然的世界潮流中,中药走向世界面临大好机遇,同时也受到国际社会的严峻挑战。中药现代化,特别要充分认识中西医药结合的必要性和重要性。中西医药结合的关键在人才培养。通过规范化的教育,培养和造就新一代中西医药结合的高层次药学人才已刻不容缓地提上议事日程。     

TEACHING COMPUTER-BASED SPELLING TO INDIVIDUALS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL AND HEARING DISABILITIES: TRANSFER OF STIMULUS CONTROL TO WRITING TASKS

Computer-based instruction may yield widely useful handwritten spelling. Illustrative cases involved individuals with mental retardation and hearing impairments. The participant in Study 1 matched computer pictures and printed words to one another but did not spell the words to pictures. Spelling was then taught using a computerized procedure. In general, increases in the accuracy of computer spelling were accompanied by improvements in written spelling to pictures. Study 2 extended these results with a 2nd participant. After initial training, spelling improved in the context of a retrieval task in which the participant (a) wrote a list of the names of objects displayed on a table, (b) selected the objects from a shelf, and (c) returned the objects to the table. Nearly perfect accuracy scores declined on some retrieval trials conducted without a list, suggesting that the list may have served a mediating function during retrieval. Transfer of stimulus control of computer-based teaching to the retrieval task may have been attributable to the existence of stimulus classes involving pictures, objects, and printed words.     

Teaching reading and spelling: exclusion and stimulus equivalence

In Experiment 1, 7 nonreading children were exposed to a program designed to teach reading of 51 training words. The program featured an exclusion-based procedure in which the children (a) matched printed to dictated words and (b) constructed (copied) printed words with movable letters and named them. All children learned to read the training words. Five children also read generalization words and showed progress in spelling. Experiment 2 applied the program to 4 different children, omitting the word-construction task. They also learned to read the training words, but only 1 participant read generalization words. The data support a stimulus equivalence account of reading acquisition and suggest that reading generalization may be obtained, especially when the teaching program includes word construction.     

In-vivo rating of treatment acceptability by children: Effects of probability instruction on student's spelling performance under group contingency conditions

In prior studies, Shapiro and Goldberg (1986, 1990) failed to find a relationship between in-vivo ratings by children of treatment acceptability and treatment effectiveness. These studies involved the use of interdependent and dependent group contingencies designed to improve the spelling performance of sixth grade students. To investigate whether the failure to link treatment acceptability and effectiveness may have been due to the subjects' inability to understand the differences in treatment conditions, this study utilized a pre-intervention training package to enhance salient differences between two types of group contingencies. Results of this study showed that both group contingencies were successful at improving the spelling performance of students, particularly the poorer spellers. Prior to treatment, students preferred the interdependent condition, with the higher-achieving students expressing the strongest preference. After implementation of the training package, both conditions were now rated as equally acceptable. Pre- and post-test acceptability ratings of each condition tended to be significantly correlated but correlations between acceptability ratings and treatment effectiveness were negligible at all points in the study. Limitations of the present study and suggestions for further research are discussed.     

Retention and generalization of spelling words acquired using a peer-mediated instructional procedure by children with mild handicapping conditions

A peer-mediated instructional procedure termed Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) has been shown to increase the rates and accuracy of student responses to academic tasks and to improve student performance on weekly spelling tests. In addition to replicating previous research, the present investigation evaluated the retention and generalization of words learned using CWPT. Students classified as mildly handicapped participated in daily practice of 10 spelling words using CWPT for 10 weeks. Short- and long-term retention of words practiced was assessed. Results indicated that the students average post-test score was over 84% correct on weekly tests, replicating previous results. When included in a dictation task the following week, 76.2% of previously tutored words were correctly spelled. Short- and longer-term retention measured on posttests was 72% and 69% correct, respectively. Modest improvements in students sight recognition of words practiced during CWPT were obtained. Student failure to learn particular words was attributable to fewer opportunities to practice these words. Further, students reported positive evaluation of CWPT and perceived positive social and self esteem outcomes.