汉字内隐记忆的实验研究（Ⅰ）──内隐记忆存在的条件

通过四个２×２×２方差设计实验,将直接测量（再认任务）和间接测量（偏好判断任务）在形式上进行匹配,考察了汉字的注意因素,测量任务因素和时程因素经过不同组合构成的１０种情况,其中测量任务因素的间接测量根据汉字的局部加工（字形、字义、字音）和整体加工（整体特征）分为四种子任务,试图寻找汉字认知范畴里内隐记忆存在的条件。实验分学习和测验两个阶段。学习阶段的处理对所有被试都相同。测验阶段的不同指导语形成不同的测量任务。结果发现了内隐记忆存在的三个必要条件是非注意（目标）汉字,汉字的整体加工和偏好判断任务后阶段。匹配方法的使用是发现内隐记忆的保证。汉字的整体加工和局部加工具有不同的特点。     

The influence of experiences of discrimination on psychological stress: a comparison of seven immigrant groups

The aim of this study was to compare experiences of discrimination and their influence on trust in authorities and psychological distress among immigrants in Finland. A sample of 1146 immigrants, aged between 20 and 36 and representing seven immigrant groups (Russians, Ingrian/Finnish returnees, Estonians, Somalis, Arabs, Vietnamese and Turks), answered a mailed questionnaire based on traditional acculturation research as well as victim research. In accordance with our expectations, discrimination experiences in various realms of life were highly predictive of the psychological well‐being of all immigrants, as well as of lack of trust in the Finnish authorities. However, contrary to our hypotheses regarding the effects of visibility and cultural proximity, group differences in psychological distress did not correspond to the group differences observed in perceived discrimination. These results are discussed in the light of the opposing predictions concerning self‐damage effects of discrimination, made by social identity theory on the one hand and the theory on self‐protecting functions of external attributions (Crocker and Major, 1989) on the other. It is concluded that the low level of stress observed in the most visible and most culturally distant group, despite high levels of perceived discrimination, is better explained by the latter than the former. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

高中生正念与学习倦怠：基于自我调节学习模型的视角

基于自我调节学习模型的视角,探究正念对高中生学习倦怠的影响,采用正念注意觉知量表、生命意义感量表、津巴多时间洞察力问卷和青少年学习倦怠量表调查863名高中生。结果表明：（1）正念对高中生学习倦怠具有负向预测作用;（2）正念通过未来时间洞察力与生命意义感的独立中介作用及未来时间洞察力与生命意义感的链式中介作用间接影响学习倦怠。因此,正念可以负向预测高中生学习倦怠,提升未来时间洞察力与生命意义感可以缓解高中生学习倦怠,促进高中生身心健康。     

Duration comparison: relative stimulus differences stimulus age, and stimulus predictiveness.

Under a psychophysical trials procedure, pigeons were presented with a red light of one duration followed by a green light of a second duration. Eight geometrically spaced base durations were paired with one of four shorter and four longer durations as the alternate member of a duration pair, with different pairs randomly intermixed. One choice was reinforced if red had lasted longer than green, and a second choice was reinforced if green had lasted longer. Performance was compared when all the base durations and their pair members were included (entire-range condition) or when only the four longest base durations and their comparison durations (restricted-range condition) were used. Discrimination sensitivity decreased for longer duration pairs under both conditions, supporting a memory-based account. Sensitivity was lower under the restricted-range condition. Under both conditions, a bias to report "green as longer" increased as the second green duration increased. Bias changed as a matching function of the green-duration predictiveness of the correct choice. The results are related to a quantitative model of timing and remembering proposed by Staddon.     

Leaving patches: Effects of travel requirements

Five pigeons were trained in an analogue foraging procedure in which, by completing a travel requirement, they entered a “patch” in which a reinforcer might be available after an unpredictable time. They also had the opportunity, by emitting a defined response, to exit the patch and travel to another patch. Prey availability in a patch was not signaled. Data were collected on the length of time that subjects stayed in patches before exiting (residence times) as a function of various travel requirements: travel for a fixed time in blackout, fixed-interval schedule traveling, fixed-time traveling with an added response required to terminate traveling, and fixed-ratio traveling. For each of these conditions, the required amount of travel (time or responses) was varied over a wide range. As previously reported, residence times increased with increases in fixed-time traveling, as they did with increasing fixed-interval or fixed-ratio traveling. There was no evidence that adding response or work requirements systematically affected residence time except via increased travel time, although 3 of the 5 birds stayed longer in a patch under higher fixed-ratio values. A “threshold-maximization” model described the data well with a single parameter that was consistent across subjects, procedures, and experiments.     

Autoshaping the pigeon's gape response: acquisition and topography as a function of reinforcer type and magnitude.

The pigeon's key-pecking response is experimentally dissociable into transport (head movement) and gape (jaw movement) components. During conditioning of the key-pecking response, both components come under the control of the conditioned stimulus. To study the acquisition of gape conditioned responses and to clarify the contribution of unconditioned stimulus (reinforcer) variables to the form of the response, gape and key-contact responses were recorded during an autoshaping procedure and reinforcer properties were systematically varied. One group of 8 pigeons was food deprived and subgroups of 2 birds each were exposed to four different pellet sizes as reinforcers, each reinforcer signaled by a keylight conditioned stimulus. A second group was water deprived and received water reinforcers paired with the conditioned stimulus. Water- or food-deprived control groups received appropriate water or food reinforcers that were randomly delivered with respect to the keylight stimulus. Acquisition of the conditioned gape response frequently preceded key-contact responses, and gape conditioned responses were generally elicited at higher rates than were key contacts. The form of the conditioned gape was similar to, but not identical with, the form of the unconditioned gape. The gape component is a critical topographical feature of the conditioned key peck, a sensitive measure of conditioning during autoshaping, and an important source of the observed similarities in the form of conditioned and consummatory responses.     

Effects of cocaine on simple reaction times and sensory thresholds in baboons.

The effects of chronic, daily administration of cocaine on auditory and visual reaction times and thresholds were studied in baboons. Single intramuscular injections of cocaine hydrochloride (0.1 to 5.6 mg/kg) were given once daily for periods of 10 to 25 days, and were followed immediately by psychophysical tests designed to assess cocaine's effects on simple reaction times as on auditory and visual threshold functions. Consistent reductions in reaction times were frequently observed over the cocaine dose range of 0.32 to 1.0 mg/kg; at higher doses, either decreases or increases in reaction times were observed, depending upon the animal. Lowered reaction times generally occurred immediately following the 1st day's cocaine injection, and continued through all subsequent days during the dose administration period, suggesting little development of tolerance or sensitivity to these reaction-time effects. Reaction-time decreases showed a U-shaped dose-effect function. The greatest decreases in reaction times occurred from 0.32 to 1.0 mg/kg, and produced an average reaction-time decrease of 10 to 12%. Concurrently measured auditory and visual thresholds showed no systematic changes as a function of cocaine dose. Pausing was observed during performance of the psychophysical tasks, with the length of total session pause times being directly related to cocaine dose.     

Simple additivity of stochastic psychological processes: Tests and measures

In this article, some additive models of behavioral measures are defined, and distributional tests of them are proposed. Major theoretical results include (a) conditions for additivity of components to predict the highest level of dominance in a model-free stochastic dominance hierarchy, (b) methods of identifying the shape of the hazard rate function of an added component from certain relationships among the observable density and distribution functions, and (c) effects of stochastic dependence between components on the distributional tests. Feasibility and usefulness of the methods are demonstrated by application to choice RT and ratings experiments.The author was supported by grants MH44640 to Roger Ratcliff and AFOSR 90-0246 (jointly funded by NSF) to Gail McCoon. Parts of this work were presented at the European Mathematical Psychology meetings of 1991. My thanks to F. Gregory Ashby, Bruce Bloxom, Roger Ratcliff, W. Schwarz, Jim Townsend, and an anonymous reviewer for their many helpful suggestions.     

Effects of two levels of procedural fidelity with constant time delay on children's learning

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of constant time delay delivered with high procedural fidelity to constant time delay with high procedural fidelity on all variables except delivery of the controlling prompt (i.e., on a mean of 44% of the trials, the controlling prompt was not delivered when it should have been provided). Six preschool children with disabilities were taught to identify photographs in two alternating conditions (e.g., high procedural fidelity and low procedural fidelity). An adapted alternating treatments design was used to evaluate the instructional conditions on the effectiveness and efficiency of instruction. In addition, daily measures were taken of the teacher's implementation of each step of the constant time delay procedures which indicated that the two conditions were implemented as planned. The results indicate that both conditions were effective for four children; for three of these, the high procedural fidelity condition resulted in more efficient learning. For the fifth child, the high-fidelity condition resulted in criterion level responding, but the low fidelity condition did not. However, when the high fidelity procedure and trial-by-trial reinforcement were used for the low-fidelity stimuli, these also were acquired. For the sixth child, neither procedure was effective; thus, the high fidelity condition was used alone and resulted in learning. The results are discussed in terms of using the constant time delay procedure and studying the procedural fidelity of other strategies.     

Efficacy of constant time delay implemented by peer tutors in general education classrooms

We evaluated the effects of teaching 13 typically developing children to use constant time delay when tutoring three of their peers who had substantial disabilities. We measured the extent to which the tutors used the constant time delay procedure correctly and the tutees' correct performance on the skills being taught. A multiple probe design across behaviors was used. The results indicated that (a) the tutors used each step of the constant time delay with a high degree of procedural fidelity; (b) the students with disabilities acquired the skills that were taught during peer tutoring; and (c) modifications of the procedure were required for 2 of the 3 students with disabilities, and the peers tutors were able to implement the modifications. Implications for practice and future research are described.