Conditioned inhibition is not the symmetrical opposite of conditioned excitation: A test of the Rescorla-Wagner model

Rescorla and Wagner's (1972) linear associative model of learning predicts that a neutral stimulus will become weakly excitatory if it is paired with a conditioned inhibitor and the compound is not reinforced. If the inhibitor is not allowed to extinguish during these pairings, the model predicts that the neutral stimulus will become strongly excitatory. Rescorla (1971) has presented some evidence to support the former prediction of a weak effect. Experiment I tested the latter prediction of a strong effect using rats in a conditioned emotional response paradigm, and found no evidence that the pairings made the neutral stimulus excitatory. Experiment II replicated Rescorla's results, but showed that even on a relearning test the experimental group learned no faster than a novel stimulus control group.     

Evidence for a developmental shift in the basis for memory organization

Using a false recognition procedure, either with or without instructions to facilitate Synonym or Antonym encoding, 128 second- and sixth-grade boys and girls were tested. The results indicated that there were no grade or sex differences in generalization errors to synonyms or antonyms under neurtral learning instructions, but that facilitative instructions interacted with grade level. Under instructions to facilitate synonym encoding, second graders showed a marked increase in synonym errors. On the other hand, under instructions to facilitate antonym encoding, sixth graders showed an increase in antonym errors. In addition, association strength was directly related to the magnitude of the generalization errors in both grades. The results are discussed in terms of age-related shifts in the basis underlying the organization of verbal memories.     

The development of conceptual and rote recall skills among school age children

One hundred eighty children from Grades K, 5, and 9 performed a recall task within one of four instructional conditions: serial recall; standard free recall; labeling free recall; labeling cued recall. The task required that Ss view and recall items from three successively presented sets of categorized pieture stimuli. Controls were imposed upon the associatice relatedness of items within sets so as to minimize the occurrence of associative responding during recall. The clustering data showed that kindergarten and fifth grade children are able to use conceptual skills to effectively mediate recall, but fail to effect these skills on a spontaneous basis in free recall. The results were discussed in line with the hypothesis that young children fail to engage in planful cognitive activity in recall tasks.     

Speech acquisition in a nonverbal isolate child

The present study attempted to evaluate experimentally the relationship between two response classes: cooperative play and speech. One child was observed in a preschool free-play setting. Base rates of speech and play with peers indicated that the child never spoke to or played with peers during free-play periods. Base rates of teacher attention were observed to fluctuate directly with the child's isolate play. When differential attention and extinction operations were presented, removed and presented again, the frequency of cooperative play with peers increased, decreased and increased accordingly. Moderate fluctuations in verbal behavior also correlated with the presence and absence of the differential attention and extinction operations, even though the operations were applied only to cooperative play. The results suggest that some nonverbal isolate children may begin producing speech when play behaviors with peers are reinforced by teachers.     

Between-chains and within-chain speed gradients as functions of length

Two experiments examined between-chains and within-chain speed gradients as functions of length. The first, involving straight runways, revealed hyperbolic gradients within chains for each of three lengths, .61, 1.22, and 2.44 m. Between-chains comparisons showed a goal gradient effect confined to the start box segment and a long-chain depression effect in the last two segments. The second experiment, involving discrete-trial fixed-ratio bar-pressing schedules of FR(1 + 4), FR(1 + 8), and FR(1 + 16), showed goal gradient effects for starting speeds and for speeds across the first segment beyond start. Also, confounding effects apparent in the runway, of acceleration, deceleration, and long-chain depression, were diminished or absent in the bar-pressing situation.     

Effects of prefeeding on performance with body weight held constant

Two experiments are reported in which rats received either no prefeeding, nutritive substance prefeeding, or nonnutritive substance prefeeding prior to running in a straight alley. The running-speed data supported body weight as an overall measure of hunger drive. Performance was a function of body weight but not stomach weight or associated stomach bulk.     

A behaviorally-based measure of manifest needs in work settings

This investigation represents an attempt to develop and validate a research instrument (Manifest Needs Questionnaire) capable of measuring the four needs of achievement, affiliation, autonomy, and dominance using behaviorally-based scales. The instrument is designed to measure such needs with specific reference to work settings and with minimal time requirements for completion. Results of both laboratory and field studies among 640 subjects indicate that the instrument exhibits acceptable levels of convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity, as well as reasonably high test-retest reliability and internal consistency. Results are compared to other, lengthier instruments designed to measure similar needs.     

Structural ambiguity in serial pattern learning

Four experiments on serial anticipation learning of lights by college students show that (a) the operations of transposing and taking the mirror image are used, (b) temporal inversion is not used, (c) a sequence made of two contrasting halves may be as easy to learn as a sequence having a single homogeneous hierarchical structure. Data revealed intrasequence confusion errors made by importing an operation from one part of the sequence to another. In homogeneous sequences, subjects appear to lose track of where they are in a sequence, and therefore repeat an operation already performed. The evidence supports the idea of an hierarchical cognitive structure, but shows that learning is not a simple function of that structure. Errors and difficulties arise from structural ambiguities, substrings of events that can be reconciled with more than one possible cognitive structure.     

Eliminating nail-biting by the habit reversal procedure

Fingernail-biting is prevalent among children and adults alike. About 43% of children bite their nails during the puberty ages (Wechsler, 1931); 25% of college students are nail-biters (Coleman and McCalley, 1948), and 10% of adults bite their nails (Pennington, 1945).A variety of treatments including negative practice, operant procedures and psychotherapy have been used in treating nail-biting but no single treatment has been generally effective in eliminating nail-biting. Smith (1957) using negative practice reported that 21 of 57 (39%) of his nail-biting clients were cured. 9 improved and 27 (47%) were unimproved. Bucher (1968) reported that 13 of 20 (65%) college students stopped nail-biting by using a self-administered operant shock procedure. However, he reported many relapses after the withdrawal of shock for nail-biting. No evaluation of psychoanalytic treatment for nail-biting appears to have been made.     

The Premack principle in human experimental and applied settings

Studies claiming support for the Premack Principle in human experimental and applied settings are reviewed in terms of the standard test conditions associated with the Principle and in terms of the Principle's conceptual constrains. Little definitive evidence was found to support the claim that a high probability response will reinforce a lower probability response, nor was the converse contention supported, that a low probability response will act as a punisher for a high probability response. More importantly, among the reports reviewed there was no evidence for the reversibility of the reinforcement relationship.