古人论文学语言和意象

本文介绍古人对如何解决语言和意象不相一致这一问题的一些意见,并从中归纳出四种解决问题的方法：１．让形象说话,２．抓住事物主要特征,３．不即不离地描写,４．语言浅近     

Love, Power, and Being Born Married

This article responds both sympathetically and critically to some feminist writing about the psychology of women and of gender differences. Though love and the will to power often oppose one another, as Jung maintained, to understand their bearing upon gender it is sometimes important to regard other kinds of relations between them. There is something to be said for imagining the self as being born married. Still, the otherness of the sexes to one another cannot be overcome, and appreciating the implications of this given leads to a more complex understanding of the relational self symbolized by marriage.     

Developing insight through supervision: relating, then defining

By the use of tape recordings, I attempt to understand the main ways in which a supervisor helps the supervisees to gain insights into their work with their patients. Through this research I became aware that insights come into being by way of a process involving unconscious identity and differentiation. I have use supervisory examples to illustrate the ways in which the supervisor interacts with the supervisee.     

Individual differences among children in spelling and reading styles

Previous studies have found differences among children in their relative reliance on spelling-sound rules and word-specific associations in reading words. Children at one end of the continuum ("Phoenicians") rely heavily on spelling-sound rules; children at the other end ("Chinese") are more likely to use specific associations. This study found evidence for a Phoenician-Chinese continuum in spelling as well as in reading. Ability to spell nonsense word (e.g., "prunt") correlated more highly with ability to spell regular words (e.g., "grunt") than with ability to spell exception words (e.g., "front"). Children who were skilled at rules tended to overgeneralize them to exception words. In addition, a measure of rule use in spelling correlated with measures of rule use in reading.     

Developmental differences in the use of retrieval cues to describe episodic information in memory

In four experiments, this study examined some reasons why second and fourth grade children use cues relatively ineffectively to retrieve episodic information in memory. Retrieval success was conceptualized as using a cue to describe episodic information in memory. The experiments manipulated factors hypothesized to affect the discriminability and constructability of compatible encodings of context cue information at retrieval. In general, the effects were accomplished by varying the specificity of cue-target information at acquisition, and similar or different samplings of cue information alone at retrieval by means of orienting questions. Experiment 1 varied the encoding of item specific or categorical information. Experiment 2 varied the encoding of supercategorical or subcategorical information. Experiment 3 used two acquisition trials, crossing Categorical × Item Specific encoding and repeating identical encoding experiences. Experiment 4 varied Separate and Interactive Imagery encoding instructions. The results showed that problems of both discriminability and constructability contribute to developmental differences in the use of retrieval cues.     

TV cameras,public self-consciousness,and mock juror performance

In Chandler v. Florida (1981), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the presence of television cameras in the courtroom does not violate a defendant's constitutional right to a fair trial. Since then, several states have expanded their TV coverage rights, and the controversy has intensified. The present study tested opponents' argument that TV cameras distract jurors, thereby reducing their reliance on evidence in the decision-making process. Fifty-one community adults watched a 95-min videotape of a civil trial in the presence or absence of a camera. No effects were obtained on verdicts, awards, or a series of self-report measures. The camera did impair subjects' recall of the evidence, but this effect was dually limited—(a) consistent with an adaptation hypothesis, an initially strong distractive effect gradually diminished, resulting in a net post-trial loss of information that was not statistically significant, and (b) consistent with an individual differences hypothesis, the camera impaired the recall of subjects who were low but not high in dispositional public self-consciousness. These findings were discussed in terms of their practical implications for courtroom management and their contribution to the self-awareness literature.     

Judging psychopathology: Expectation and contrast

An experiment was performed to assess the role of expectations in psychosocial contrast effects. Subjects were initially presented with a series of word definitions that were either high or low pathology; their task was to indicate those definitions that had been produced by schizophrenic (vs nonschizophrenic) patients. After this “induction” series, subjects were presented with a common “test” series that included both definitions and handwriting samples; they evaluated the degree of psychopathology that was implied by each item. Some subjects were required to state their expectations in connection with the test items. First they attempted to guess the percentage of schizophrenics in the overall test series; second, before being presented with each test item, they guessed whether the patient in question was (or was not) schizophrenic. Subjects' expectations were consistent with the induction series to which they were assigned; those assigned to the high-pathology induction expected the test series to include more schizophrenic patients than those in the low-pathology group. Nonetheless, despite these expectations, subjects showed a contrast effect in their evaluations of the test definitions (but not in evaluating the handwriting samples). That is, subjects from the low-pathology induction group rated the test definitions as being more pathological than did those in the high-pathology condition. Within-group correlations indicated that the subjects' expectations were directly related to subsequent judgments. A two-path model is discussed, relating (a) the respondents' induction group assignment, (b) his/her expectations, and (c) subsequent test judgments.     

A developmental perspective on reading dysfunction: Accuracy and rate criteria in the subtyping of dyslexic children

Children referred with specific reading dysfunction were subtyped as accuracy disabled or rate disabled according to criteria developed from an information processing model of reading skill. Multiple measures of oral and written language development were compared for two subtyped samples matched on age, sex, and IQ. The two samples were comparable in reading fluency, reading comprehension, word knowledge, and word retrieval functions. Accuracy disabled readers demonstrated inferior decoding and spelling skills. The accuracy disabled sample proved deficient in their understanding of oral language structure and in their ability to associate unfamiliar pseudowords and novel symbols in a task designed to simulate some of the learning involved in initial reading acquisition. It was suggested that these two samples of disabled readers may be best described with respect to their relative standing along a theoretical continuum of normal reading development.     

Mental age and cognitive stage in young handicapped and at-risk children

This research addressed the question of whether stage-related patterns of early cognitive development, reported for normally developing children in the first two and a half years of life, may also characterize the development of at-risk and handicapped children when mental age rather than chronological age is used to organize the data. Performance on a psychometric infant test and two neo-Piagetian-based stage measures was assessed for 95 at-risk and handicapped children. Mental age predicted cognitive level of performance for levels 1 to 3, representing the first year and a half of development, but did not predict the highest level, symbolic functioning. In addition, transition points between levels were observed at mental ages similar to the chronological ages when these transitions have been reported for normally developing infants, for all but the last level. The significance of the correspondence between the psychometric measure and the stage measures is discussed and several alternatives for the breakdown at the highest level are considered.