Marital conflict: Correlates, structure, and context

Marital conflict has deleterious effects on mental, physical, and family health, and three decades of research have yielded a detailed picture of the behaviors that differentiate distressed from nondistressed couples. Review of this work shows that the singular emphasis on conflict in generating marital outcomes has yielded an incomplete picture of its role in marriage. Recently, researchers have tried to paint a more textured picture of marital conflict by studying spouses' backgrounds and characteristics, investigating conflict in the contexts of support giving and affectional expression, and considering the ecological niche of couples in their broader environment.     

Patch choice as a function of procurement cost and encounter rate.

The effects of patch encounter rate on patch choice and meal patterns were studied in rats foraging in a laboratory environment offering two patch types that were encountered sequentially and randomly. The cost of procuring access to one patch was greater than the other. Patches were either encountered equally often or the high-cost patch was encountered more frequently. As expected, rats exploited the low-cost patch on almost 100% of encounters and exploited the high-cost patch on a percentage of encounters that was inversely proportional to its cost. Meal size was the same at both patches. Surprisingly, when low-cost patches were rare, the rats did not increase their use of high-cost patches. This resulted in spending more time and energy searching for patches and a higher average cost per meal. The rats responded to this increased cost by reducing the frequency and increasing the size of meals at both patches and thereby limited total daily foraging cost and conserved total intake.     

Temporal control in rats: analysis of nonlocalized effects from short interfood intervals.

The present experiment analyzed temporal control of postreinforcement pause duration during within-session changes in the criterion for reinforcement (interfood interval, IFI). Analysis of interval-by-interval changes in the pause revealed localized and nonlocalized effects from short intervals that caused specific changes in performance. In Phase 1, rats were presented with five consecutive 15-s IFIs intercalated into a series of 60-s IFIs. The 15-s set decreased the pause in adjacent and more remote 60-s intervals. In Phase 2, two sets of 15-s intervals were intercalated. The spacing between the two sets varied so that 0, 5, 10, or 15 60-s IFIs separated the sets. The postreinforcement pause tracked all changes in the IFI duration, and the localized effect from a short set extended beyond the next interval to the next few 60-s IFIs. Effects from one set, however, did not combine with a second set: Changes in the pause after two sets were the same regardless of the spacing between sets.     

Effects of signaling on temporal control of behavior in response‐initiated fixed intervals

Behavior and events distributed in time can serve as markers that signal delays to future events. The majority of timing research has focused on how behavior changes as the time to some event, usually food availability, decreases. The primary objective of the two experiments presented here was to assess how behavior changes as time passes between two time markers when the first time marker was manipulated but the second, food delivery, was held constant. Pigeons were exposed to fixed‐interval, response‐initiated fixed‐interval, and signaled response‐initiated fixed‐interval 15‐ and 30‐s schedules of reinforcement. In Experiment 1, first‐response latencies were systematically shorter in the signaled response‐initiated schedules than response‐initiated schedules, suggesting that the first response was a more effective time marker when it was signaled. In Experiment 2, responding in no‐food (i.e. “peak”) trials indicated that timing accuracy was equivalent in the three schedule types. Compared to fixed interval schedules, timing precision was reduced in the signaled response‐initiated schedules and was lowest in response‐initiated schedules. Results from Experiments 1 and 2 coupled with previous research suggest that the overall “informativeness” of a time marker relative to other events and behaviors in the environment may determine its efficacy.     

Reevaluating the link between dispositional optimism and positive functioning using a temporally expanded perspective

Dispositional optimism is typically defined in terms of generalized positive expectancies for personal future life outcomes. Yet, multiple lines of inquiry have demonstrated fundamental interconnections among all three temporal perspectives (past, present, and future). Hence, in the present work, we examine the commonality underlying dispositional optimism and individuals’ evaluations of their past, present, and anticipated future lives. Results (n = 459; 80% female; M age = 19.68) suggest that dispositional optimism loads strongly on an underlying (latent) tendency to evaluate one’s life positively across temporal perspectives. This latent tendency was significantly associated with each Big Five personality dimension; independent of this latent tendency dispositional optimism was associated only with neuroticism. Controlling for personality dimensions, the latent tendency was predictive of positive functioning (mental health, coping, physical health, and social resources); in contrast, independent of this latent tendency dispositional optimism had no significant residual associations with any of the various functioning indicators.     

认知诊断分类中心的确定

期望反应模式是认知诊断分类的类中心,确定了诊断范围中属性及其层级关系后,类中心的数目由测验Q矩阵决定.类中心应该是完备的,即理论上有多少个知识状态就应该有多少个类中心,这涉及评分方式、Q矩阵设计、Q矩阵评价与修改、认知诊断测验如何实施等问题的讨论.重点给出多级评分认知诊断测验不同属性层级对应的完备Q矩阵设计的例子和罗列了Wang等人（2013）的Q矩阵修改的方法.     

自我提高还是自我增强？解释水平理论的观点

以概念启动和情境启动的方式分别激活了可能自我知觉和当前自我知觉,借以检验对自我提高动机和自我增强动机的影响。结果发现：（1）相对于当前自我,可能自我启动后,个体对自我的评价更低,更乐意接受反馈,也更能注意到测试对自己的帮助;（2）一年级学生在读了明星学生的新闻后对自己的评价更低,对明星的评价更高;四年级学生则相反。这表明,消极反馈和可能自我的同时出现引发了自我提高动机,消极反馈和当前自我共同激活了自我提高动机。     

社会排斥的心理行为特征及其脑机制

社会排斥损害个体基本的归属需要, 对个体的心理和生理会造成严重影响。根据需要威胁时间模型, 社会排斥后的心理和行为特征可以分为三个阶段。社交媒体的发展使社会排斥出现了新的心理和行为特征。近年来功能性磁共振成像研究发现, 突显网络和默认网络等网络中的一些核心脑区都参与了社会排斥各阶段的情绪和认知加工过程。未来研究应以需要威胁时间模型为基础, 以脑网络方法为手段, 探索社会排斥神经机制, 预测排斥后的心理和行为反应模式。     

过去时间的心理结构

４０８名大学生被试用秒、分、小时、日、星期、年和月７个时间单位和模糊统计试验方法对４０个不定的过去时间修饰词作经验赋值,结果显示：（１）过去时间和未来时间在心理结构上是对称的,分为三个心理时间段,即以秒和分为计时单位的“较近的过去”和“较近的未来”,以小时、日和月为计时单位的“近的过去”和“近的未来”,和以年为计时单位的“远的过去”和“远的未来”。（２）随着时间修饰词的词义离现在由近至远,其词义地